Units
Translation components API.
See the Weblate's Web API documentation for detailed description of the API.
GET /api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/units/?format=api&page=9
{ "count": 199, "next": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/units/?format=api&page=10", "previous": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/units/?format=api&page=8", "results": [ { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "In the figure above, when the sender receives `C(OK,0,[2])`, it knows that all frames up to and including `D(0,...)` have been correctly received. It also knows that frame `D(2,...)` has been received and can cancel the retransmission timer associated to this frame. However, this frame should not be removed from the sending buffer before the reception of a cumulative acknowledgment (`C(OK,2)` in the figure above) that covers this frame." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "In the figure above, when the sender receives `C(OK,0,[2])`, it knows that all frames up to and including `D(0,...)` have been correctly received. It also knows that frame `D(2,...)` has been received and can cancel the retransmission timer associated to this frame. However, this frame should not be removed from the sending buffer before the reception of a cumulative acknowledgment (`C(OK,2)` in the figure above) that covers this frame." ], "id_hash": -69451303247382229, "content_hash": -69451303247382229, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:986", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 193, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": true, "num_words": 69, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34742/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 34742, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=7f0942685cc0792b", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34742/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2019-10-14T10:39:30.574737+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "Maximum window size with `go-back-n` and `selective repeat`" ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "Maximum window size with `go-back-n` and `selective repeat`" ], "id_hash": 8443577616455226620, "content_hash": 8443577616455226620, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:990", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 194, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 8, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34744/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 34744, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=f52d9d1b2e40d4fc", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34744/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2019-10-14T10:39:30.645475+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "A reliable protocol that uses `n` bits to encode its sequence number can send up to :math:`2^n` successive frames. However, to ensure a reliable delivery of the frames, `go-back-n` and `selective repeat` cannot use a sending window of :math:`2^n` frames. Consider first `go-back-n` and assume that a sender sends :math:`2^n` frames. These frames are received in-sequence by the destination, but all the returned acknowledgments are lost. The sender will retransmit all frames. These frames will all be accepted by the receiver and delivered a second time to the user. It is easy to see that this problem can be avoided if the maximum size of the sending window is :math:`{2^n}-1` frames. A similar problem occurs with `selective repeat`. However, as the receiver accepts out-of-sequence frames, a sending window of :math:`{2^n}-1` frames is not sufficient to ensure a reliable delivery. It can be easily shown that to avoid this problem, a `selective repeat` sender cannot use a window that is larger than :math:`\\frac{2^n}{2}` frames." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "A reliable protocol that uses `n` bits to encode its sequence number can send up to :math:`2^n` successive frames. However, to ensure a reliable delivery of the frames, `go-back-n` and `selective repeat` cannot use a sending window of :math:`2^n` frames. Consider first `go-back-n` and assume that a sender sends :math:`2^n` frames. These frames are received in-sequence by the destination, but all the returned acknowledgments are lost. The sender will retransmit all frames. These frames will all be accepted by the receiver and delivered a second time to the user. It is easy to see that this problem can be avoided if the maximum size of the sending window is :math:`{2^n}-1` frames. A similar problem occurs with `selective repeat`. However, as the receiver accepts out-of-sequence frames, a sending window of :math:`{2^n}-1` frames is not sufficient to ensure a reliable delivery. It can be easily shown that to avoid this problem, a `selective repeat` sender cannot use a window that is larger than :math:`\\frac{2^n}{2}` frames." ], "id_hash": -7403051786628141458, "content_hash": -7403051786628141458, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:992", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 195, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 163, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34746/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 34746, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=1943139f84356e6e", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34746/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2019-10-14T10:39:30.758350+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "Reliable protocols often need to send data in both directions. To reduce the overhead caused by the acknowledgments, most reliable protocols use `piggybacking`. Thanks to this technique, a datalink entity can place the acknowledgments and the receive window that it advertises for the opposite direction of the data flow inside the header of the data frames that it sends. The main advantage of piggybacking is that it reduces the overhead as it is not necessary to send a complete frame to carry an acknowledgment. This is illustrated in the figure below where the acknowledgment number is underlined in the data frames. Piggybacking is only used when data flows in both directions. A receiver will generate a pure acknowledgment when it does not send data in the opposite direction as shown in the bottom of the figure." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "Reliable protocols often need to send data in both directions. To reduce the overhead caused by the acknowledgments, most reliable protocols use `piggybacking`. Thanks to this technique, a datalink entity can place the acknowledgments and the receive window that it advertises for the opposite direction of the data flow inside the header of the data frames that it sends. The main advantage of piggybacking is that it reduces the overhead as it is not necessary to send a complete frame to carry an acknowledgment. This is illustrated in the figure below where the acknowledgment number is underlined in the data frames. Piggybacking is only used when data flows in both directions. A receiver will generate a pure acknowledgment when it does not send data in the opposite direction as shown in the bottom of the figure." ], "id_hash": -285481499653102000, "content_hash": -285481499653102000, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:1038", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 196, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 136, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34748/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 34748, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=7c09c416af3b2650", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34748/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2019-10-14T10:39:30.849062+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "Piggybacking example" ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "Piggybacking example" ], "id_hash": -5502241529696383651, "content_hash": -5502241529696383651, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:1044", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 197, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 2, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34750/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 34750, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=33a41c7b1a0b8d5d", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34750/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2019-10-14T10:39:30.945428+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "SDU is the acronym of Service Data Unit. We use it as a generic term to represent the data that is transported by a protocol." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "SDU is the acronym of Service Data Unit. We use it as a generic term to represent the data that is transported by a protocol." ], "id_hash": 4909318620339588793, "content_hash": 4909318620339588793, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:1052", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 198, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 25, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34752/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 34752, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=c4216746468d4eb9", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34752/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2019-10-14T10:39:31.042217+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "The size of the sliding window can be either fixed for a given protocol or negotiated during the connection establishment phase. Some protocols allow to change the maximum window size during the data transfer. We will explain these techniques with real protocols later." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "The size of the sliding window can be either fixed for a given protocol or negotiated during the connection establishment phase. Some protocols allow to change the maximum window size during the data transfer. We will explain these techniques with real protocols later." ], "id_hash": -178148927490970643, "content_hash": -178148927490970643, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:1054", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 199, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 43, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34907/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 34907, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=7d87167e8bc8abed", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/34907/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2019-10-14T10:39:31.144196+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "`optical fiber`. Optical fibers are frequently used in public and enterprise networks when the distance between the communication devices is larger than one kilometer. There are two main types of optical fibers : multi-mode and single-mode. Multi-mode is much cheaper than single-mode fiber because a LED can be used to send a signal over a multi-mode fiber while a single-mode fiber must be driven by a laser. Due to the different modes of propagation of light, multi-mode fibers are limited to distances of a few kilometers while single-mode fibers can be used over distances greater than several tens of kilometers. In both cases, repeaters can be used to regenerate the optical signal at one endpoint of a fiber to send it over another fiber." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "`optical fiber`. Optical fibers are frequently used in public and enterprise networks when the distance between the communication devices is larger than one kilometer. There are two main types of optical fibers : multi-mode and single-mode. Multi-mode is much cheaper than single-mode fiber because a LED can be used to send a signal over a multi-mode fiber while a single-mode fiber must be driven by a laser. Due to the different modes of propagation of light, multi-mode fibers are limited to distances of a few kilometers while single-mode fibers can be used over distances greater than several tens of kilometers. In both cases, repeaters can be used to regenerate the optical signal at one endpoint of a fiber to send it over another fiber." ], "id_hash": 7881825116278477527, "content_hash": 7881825116278477527, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:34", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 6, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 124, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37669/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37669, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=ed61de2efd87d2d7", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37669/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.025781+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "These physical media can be used to exchange information once this information has been converted into a suitable electrical signal. Entire telecommunication courses and textbooks are devoted to the problem of converting analog or digital information into an electrical signal so that it can be transmitted over a given physical `link`. In this book, we only consider two very simple schemes that allow to transmit information over an electrical cable. This enables us to highlight the key problems when transmitting information over a physical link. We are only interested in techniques that allow transmitting digital information through the wire. Here, we will focus on the transmission of bits, i.e. either `0` or `1`." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "These physical media can be used to exchange information once this information has been converted into a suitable electrical signal. Entire telecommunication courses and textbooks are devoted to the problem of converting analog or digital information into an electrical signal so that it can be transmitted over a given physical `link`. In this book, we only consider two very simple schemes that allow to transmit information over an electrical cable. This enables us to highlight the key problems when transmitting information over a physical link. We are only interested in techniques that allow transmitting digital information through the wire. Here, we will focus on the transmission of bits, i.e. either `0` or `1`." ], "id_hash": 3157451727663081143, "content_hash": 3157451727663081143, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:41", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 9, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 113, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37670/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37670, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=abd1859e0ecd26b7", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37670/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.040883+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "In computer networks, the bit rate of the physical layer is always expressed in bits per second. One Mbps is one million bits per second and one Gbps is one billion bits per second. This is in contrast with memory specifications that are usually expressed in bytes (8 bits), KiloBytes (1024 bytes) or MegaBytes (1048576 bytes). Transferring one MByte through a 1 Mbps link lasts 8.39 seconds." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "In computer networks, the bit rate of the physical layer is always expressed in bits per second. One Mbps is one million bits per second and one Gbps is one billion bits per second. This is in contrast with memory specifications that are usually expressed in bytes (8 bits), KiloBytes (1024 bytes) or MegaBytes (1048576 bytes). Transferring one MByte through a 1 Mbps link lasts 8.39 seconds." ], "id_hash": 232203310709978652, "content_hash": 232203310709978652, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:46", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 11, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 67, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37671/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37671, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=8338f3ae4a89b61c", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37671/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.056852+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "A `time-sequence diagram` describes the interactions between communicating hosts. By convention, the communicating hosts are represented in the left and right parts of the diagram while the electrical link occupies the middle of the diagram. In such a time-sequence diagram, time flows from the top to the bottom of the diagram. The transmission of one bit of information is represented by three arrows. Starting from the left, the first horizontal arrow represents the request to transmit one bit of information. This request is represented by a `primitive` which can be considered as a kind of procedure call. This primitive has one parameter (the bit being transmitted) and a name (`DATA.request` in this example). By convention, all primitives that are named `something.request` correspond to a request to transmit some information. The dashed arrow indicates the transmission of the corresponding electrical signal on the wire. Electrical and optical signals do not travel instantaneously. The diagonal dashed arrow indicates that it takes some time for the electrical signal to be transmitted from `Host A` to `Host B`. Upon reception of the electrical signal, the electronics on `Host B`'s network interface detects the voltage and converts it into a bit. This bit is delivered as a `DATA.indication` primitive. All primitives that are named `something.indication` correspond to the reception of some information. The dashed lines also represents the relationship between two (or more) primitives. Such a time-sequence diagram provides information about the ordering of the different primitives, but the distance between two primitives does not represent a precise amount of time." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "A `time-sequence diagram` describes the interactions between communicating hosts. By convention, the communicating hosts are represented in the left and right parts of the diagram while the electrical link occupies the middle of the diagram. In such a time-sequence diagram, time flows from the top to the bottom of the diagram. The transmission of one bit of information is represented by three arrows. Starting from the left, the first horizontal arrow represents the request to transmit one bit of information. This request is represented by a `primitive` which can be considered as a kind of procedure call. This primitive has one parameter (the bit being transmitted) and a name (`DATA.request` in this example). By convention, all primitives that are named `something.request` correspond to a request to transmit some information. The dashed arrow indicates the transmission of the corresponding electrical signal on the wire. Electrical and optical signals do not travel instantaneously. The diagonal dashed arrow indicates that it takes some time for the electrical signal to be transmitted from `Host A` to `Host B`. Upon reception of the electrical signal, the electronics on `Host B`'s network interface detects the voltage and converts it into a bit. This bit is delivered as a `DATA.indication` primitive. All primitives that are named `something.indication` correspond to the reception of some information. The dashed lines also represents the relationship between two (or more) primitives. Such a time-sequence diagram provides information about the ordering of the different primitives, but the distance between two primitives does not represent a precise amount of time." ], "id_hash": 4782467758576567451, "content_hash": 4782467758576567451, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:72", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 28, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 256, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37672/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37672, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=c25ebd167bb7049b", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37672/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.072085+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "Time-sequence diagrams are useful when trying to understand the characteristics of a given communication scheme. When considering the above transmission scheme, it is useful to evaluate whether this scheme allows the two communicating hosts to reliably exchange information. A digital transmission is considered as reliable when a sequence of bits that is transmitted by a host is received correctly at the other end of the wire. In practice, achieving perfect reliability when transmitting information using the above scheme is difficult. Several problems can occur with such a transmission scheme." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "Time-sequence diagrams are useful when trying to understand the characteristics of a given communication scheme. When considering the above transmission scheme, it is useful to evaluate whether this scheme allows the two communicating hosts to reliably exchange information. A digital transmission is considered as reliable when a sequence of bits that is transmitted by a host is received correctly at the other end of the wire. In practice, achieving perfect reliability when transmitting information using the above scheme is difficult. Several problems can occur with such a transmission scheme." ], "id_hash": -948900002313678911, "content_hash": -948900002313678911, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:88", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 29, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 89, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37673/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37673, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=72d4d479b2b9cfc1", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37673/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.096201+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "The first problem is that electrical transmission can be affected by electromagnetic interference. Interference can have various sources including natural phenomenons (like thunderstorms, variations of the magnetic field,...) but also other electrical signals (such as interference from neighboring cables, interference from neighboring antennas,...). Due to these various types of interference, there is unfortunately no guarantee that when a host transmit one bit on a wire, the same bit is received at the other end. This is illustrated in the figure below where a `DATA.request(0)` on the left host leads to a `Data.indication(1)` on the right host." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "The first problem is that electrical transmission can be affected by electromagnetic interference. Interference can have various sources including natural phenomenons (like thunderstorms, variations of the magnetic field,...) but also other electrical signals (such as interference from neighboring cables, interference from neighboring antennas,...). Due to these various types of interference, there is unfortunately no guarantee that when a host transmit one bit on a wire, the same bit is received at the other end. This is illustrated in the figure below where a `DATA.request(0)` on the left host leads to a `Data.indication(1)` on the right host." ], "id_hash": 564379615470149693, "content_hash": 564379615470149693, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:91", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 30, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": true, "num_words": 96, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37674/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37674, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=87d514452291e03d", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37674/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.112223+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "From a Computer Science viewpoint, the physical transmission of information through a wire is often considered as a black box that allows transmitting bits. This black box is commonly referred to as the `physical layer service` and is represented by using the `DATA.request` and `DATA.indication` primitives introduced earlier. This physical layer service facilitates the sending and receiving of bits, by abstracting the technological details that are involved in the actual transmission of the bits as an electromagnetic signal. However, it is important to remember that the `physical layer service` is imperfect and has the following characteristics :" ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "From a Computer Science viewpoint, the physical transmission of information through a wire is often considered as a black box that allows transmitting bits. This black box is commonly referred to as the `physical layer service` and is represented by using the `DATA.request` and `DATA.indication` primitives introduced earlier. This physical layer service facilitates the sending and receiving of bits, by abstracting the technological details that are involved in the actual transmission of the bits as an electromagnetic signal. However, it is important to remember that the `physical layer service` is imperfect and has the following characteristics :" ], "id_hash": 2615243803871485572, "content_hash": 2615243803871485572, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:150", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 33, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 97, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37675/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37675, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=a44b36622acd1e84", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37675/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.131578+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "Computer scientists are usually not interested in exchanging bits between two hosts. They prefer to write software that deals with larger blocks of data in order to transmit messages or complete files. Thanks to the physical layer service, it is possible to send a continuous stream of bits between two hosts. This stream of bits can include logical blocks of data, but we need to be able to extract each block of data from the bit stream despite the imperfections of the physical layer. In many networks, the basic unit of information exchanged between two directly connected hosts is often called a `frame`. A `frame` can be defined as a sequence of bits that has a particular syntax or structure. We will see examples of such frames later in this chapter." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "Computer scientists are usually not interested in exchanging bits between two hosts. They prefer to write software that deals with larger blocks of data in order to transmit messages or complete files. Thanks to the physical layer service, it is possible to send a continuous stream of bits between two hosts. This stream of bits can include logical blocks of data, but we need to be able to extract each block of data from the bit stream despite the imperfections of the physical layer. In many networks, the basic unit of information exchanged between two directly connected hosts is often called a `frame`. A `frame` can be defined as a sequence of bits that has a particular syntax or structure. We will see examples of such frames later in this chapter." ], "id_hash": 6055174097426710819, "content_hash": 6055174097426710819, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:201", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 42, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 131, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37676/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37676, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=d4084cc28a440123", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37676/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.154157+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "0111110" ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "0111110" ], "id_hash": -3021518992261857034, "content_hash": -3021518992261857034, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:233", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 58, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 1, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37677/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37677, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=5611687c3822c0f6", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37677/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.205534+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "011111100111110001111110" ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "011111100111110001111110" ], "id_hash": 5682543568081877218, "content_hash": 5682543568081877218, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:233", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 59, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 1, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37678/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37678, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=cedc73448c3378e2", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37678/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.225969+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "`Character stuffing`, like bit stuffing, increases the length of the transmitted frames. For `character stuffing`, the worst frame is a frame containing many `DLE` characters. When transmission errors occur, the receiver may incorrectly decode one or two frames (e.g. if the errors occur in the markers). However, it will be able to resynchronize itself with the next correctly received markers." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "`Character stuffing`, like bit stuffing, increases the length of the transmitted frames. For `character stuffing`, the worst frame is a frame containing many `DLE` characters. When transmission errors occur, the receiver may incorrectly decode one or two frames (e.g. if the errors occur in the markers). However, it will be able to resynchronize itself with the next correctly received markers." ], "id_hash": 4599341976321821413, "content_hash": 4599341976321821413, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:275", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 85, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 60, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37679/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37679, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=bfd42528bb348ae5", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37679/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.271962+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "Bit stuffing and character stuffing allow recovering frames from a stream of bits or bytes. This framing mechanism provides a richer service than the physical layer. Through the framing service, one can send and receive complete frames. This framing service can also be represented by using the `DATA.request` and `DATA.indication` primitives. This is illustrated in the figure below, assuming hypothetical frames containing four useful bits and one bit of framing for graphical reasons." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "Bit stuffing and character stuffing allow recovering frames from a stream of bits or bytes. This framing mechanism provides a richer service than the physical layer. Through the framing service, one can send and receive complete frames. This framing service can also be represented by using the `DATA.request` and `DATA.indication` primitives. This is illustrated in the figure below, assuming hypothetical frames containing four useful bits and one bit of framing for graphical reasons." ], "id_hash": 7883204536147554852, "content_hash": 7883204536147554852, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:279", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 86, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 73, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37680/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37680, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=ed66c4c234d2b224", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37680/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.294028+02:00" }, { "translation": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/translations/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?format=api", "source": [ "We can now build upon the framing mechanism to allow the hosts to exchange frames containing an integer number of bits or bytes. Once the framing problem has been solved, we can focus on designing a technique that allows reliably exchanging frames." ], "previous_source": "", "target": [ "We can now build upon the framing mechanism to allow the hosts to exchange frames containing an integer number of bits or bytes. Once the framing problem has been solved, we can focus on designing a technique that allows reliably exchanging frames." ], "id_hash": 1888667934838903702, "content_hash": 1888667934838903702, "location": "../../principles/reliability.rst:307", "context": "", "note": "", "flags": "", "state": 100, "fuzzy": false, "translated": true, "approved": false, "position": 87, "has_suggestion": false, "has_comment": false, "has_failing_check": false, "num_words": 42, "source_unit": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37681/?format=api", "priority": 100, "id": 37681, "web_url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/translate/cnp3-ebook/principlesreliability/en/?checksum=9a35e57aeabe5396", "url": "https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/api/units/37681/?format=api", "explanation": "", "extra_flags": "", "pending": false, "timestamp": "2022-09-17T01:14:35.312847+02:00" } ] }