236 strings / 10015 words

Translation Source string Target string
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
Connecting two hosts
Connexion entre deux hôtes
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
Connecting two hosts
Connecting two hosts
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
This is an unpolished draft of the third edition of this e-book. If you find any error or have suggestions to improve the text, please create an issue via https://github.com/CNP3/ebook/issues?milestone=1 or help us by providing pull requests to close the existing issues.
Ceci est un brouillon non peaufiné de la troisième édition de cet e-book. Si vous avez trouvé une erreur ou avez des suggestions pour améliorer le texte, merci de créer une *issue* via https://github.com/CNP3/ebook/issues?milestone=1 ou de nous aider en ouvrant des *pull requests* pour fermer les *issues* existantes.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
This is an unpolished draft of the third edition of this e-book. If you find any error or have suggestions to improve the text, please create an issue via https://github.com/CNP3/ebook/issues?milestone=1 or help us by providing pull requests to close the existing issues.
This is an unpolished draft of the third edition of this e-book. If you find any error or have suggestions to improve the text, please create an issue via https://github.com/CNP3/ebook/issues?milestone=1 or help us by providing pull requests to close the existing issues.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
The first step when building a network, even a worldwide network such as the Internet, is to connect two hosts together. This is illustrated in the figure below.
La première étape lorsque l'on construit un réseau, même dans le cas d'un réseau mondial tel qu'Internet, est de connecter deux hôtes ensemble. Ceci est illustré par la figure ci-dessous.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
The first step when building a network, even a worldwide network such as the Internet, is to connect two hosts together. This is illustrated in the figure below.
The first step when building a network, even a worldwide network such as the Internet, is to connect two hosts together. This is illustrated in the figure below.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
To enable the two hosts to exchange information, they need to be linked together by some kind of physical media. Computer networks have used various types of physical media to exchange information, notably :
Pour permettre à deux hôtes d'échanger de l'information, il est nécessaire de les lier ensemble au moyen d'un support physique quelconque. Les réseaux informatiques utilisent divers types de supports physiques pour échanger de l'information, notamment :
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
To enable the two hosts to exchange information, they need to be linked together by some kind of physical media. Computer networks have used various types of physical media to exchange information, notably :
To enable the two hosts to exchange information, they need to be linked together by some kind of physical media. Computer networks have used various types of physical media to exchange information, notably :
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
`electrical cable`. Information can be transmitted over different types of electrical cables. The most common ones are the twisted pairs (that are used in the telephone network, but also in enterprise networks) and the coaxial cables (that are still used in cable TV networks, but are no longer used in enterprise networks). Some networking technologies operate over the classical electrical cable.
des `câbles électriques`. Les informations peuvent être transmises à travers différents types de câbles électriques. Les plus courants sont les paires torsadées (qui sont utilisées pour le réseau téléphonique, mais aussi dans les réseaux d'entreprise) et les câbles coaxiaux (qui sont toujours utilisés pour les réseaux de télévision câblée, mais qui ne sont plus utilisés dans les réseaux d'entreprise). Plusieurs technologies de réseau fonctionnent au moyen d'un câble électrique classique.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
`electrical cable`. Information can be transmitted over different types of electrical cables. The most common ones are the twisted pairs (that are used in the telephone network, but also in enterprise networks) and the coaxial cables (that are still used in cable TV networks, but are no longer used in enterprise networks). Some networking technologies operate over the classical electrical cable.
`electrical cable`. Information can be transmitted over different types of electrical cables. The most common ones are the twisted pairs (that are used in the telephone network, but also in enterprise networks) and the coaxial cables (that are still used in cable TV networks, but are no longer used in enterprise networks). Some networking technologies operate over the classical electrical cable.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
`optical fiber`. Optical fibers are frequently used in public and enterprise networks when the distance between the communication devices is larger than one kilometer. There are two main types of optical fibers : multi-mode and single-mode. Multi-mode is much cheaper than single-mode fiber because a LED can be used to send a signal over a multi-mode fiber while a single-mode fiber must be driven by a laser. Due to the different modes of propagation of light, multi-mode fibers are limited to distances of a few kilometers while single-mode fibers can be used over distances greater than several tens of kilometers. In both cases, repeaters can be used to regenerate the optical signal at one endpoint of a fiber to send it over another fiber.
`optical fiber`. Optical fibers are frequently used in public and enterprise networks when the distance between the communication devices is larger than one kilometer. There are two main types of optical fibers : multi-mode and single-mode. Multi-mode is much cheaper than single-mode fiber because a LED can be used to send a signal over a multi-mode fiber while a single-mode fiber must be driven by a laser. Due to the different modes of propagation of light, multi-mode fibers are limited to distances of a few kilometers while single-mode fibers can be used over distances greater than several tens of kilometers. In both cases, repeaters can be used to regenerate the optical signal at one endpoint of a fiber to send it over another fiber.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
`wireless`. In this case, a radio signal is used to encode the information exchanged between the communicating devices. Many types of modulation techniques are used to send information over a wireless channel and there is lot of innovation in this field with new techniques appearing every year. While most wireless networks rely on radio signals, some use a laser that sends light pulses to a remote detector. These optical techniques allow to create point-to-point links while radio-based techniques can be used to build networks containing devices spread over a small geographical area.
le `sans fil`. Dans ce cas, un signal radio est utilisé pour encoder les informations échangées entre les deux appareils qui communiquent. Plusieurs types de modulations sont utilisées pour envoyer de l'information sur un canal sans-fil et ce domaine témoigne de beaucoup d'innovations avec de nouvelles techniques faisant leur apparition chaque année. Alors que la plupart des réseaux sans-fils reposent sur un signal radio, quelques uns utilisent un laser pour envoyer des pulsations de lumières à un détecteur à distance. Ces technologies optiques permettent de créer des liaisons point à point tandis que les technologies reposant sur un signal radio permettent de construire des réseaux avec des appareils dispersés au sein d'une petite zone géographique.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
`wireless`. In this case, a radio signal is used to encode the information exchanged between the communicating devices. Many types of modulation techniques are used to send information over a wireless channel and there is lot of innovation in this field with new techniques appearing every year. While most wireless networks rely on radio signals, some use a laser that sends light pulses to a remote detector. These optical techniques allow to create point-to-point links while radio-based techniques can be used to build networks containing devices spread over a small geographical area.
`wireless`. In this case, a radio signal is used to encode the information exchanged between the communicating devices. Many types of modulation techniques are used to send information over a wireless channel and there is lot of innovation in this field with new techniques appearing every year. While most wireless networks rely on radio signals, some use a laser that sends light pulses to a remote detector. These optical techniques allow to create point-to-point links while radio-based techniques can be used to build networks containing devices spread over a small geographical area.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
The physical layer
La couche physique
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
The physical layer
The physical layer
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
These physical media can be used to exchange information once this information has been converted into a suitable electrical signal. Entire telecommunication courses and textbooks are devoted to the problem of converting analog or digital information into an electrical signal so that it can be transmitted over a given physical `link`. In this book, we only consider two very simple schemes that allow to transmit information over an electrical cable. This enables us to highlight the key problems when transmitting information over a physical link. We are only interested in techniques that allow transmitting digital information through the wire. Here, we will focus on the transmission of bits, i.e. either `0` or `1`.
These physical media can be used to exchange information once this information has been converted into a suitable electrical signal. Entire telecommunication courses and textbooks are devoted to the problem of converting analog or digital information into an electrical signal so that it can be transmitted over a given physical `link`. In this book, we only consider two very simple schemes that allow to transmit information over an electrical cable. This enables us to highlight the key problems when transmitting information over a physical link. We are only interested in techniques that allow transmitting digital information through the wire. Here, we will focus on the transmission of bits, i.e. either `0` or `1`.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
Bit rate
Débit
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
Bit rate
Bit rate
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
In computer networks, the bit rate of the physical layer is always expressed in bits per second. One Mbps is one million bits per second and one Gbps is one billion bits per second. This is in contrast with memory specifications that are usually expressed in bytes (8 bits), KiloBytes (1024 bytes) or MegaBytes (1048576 bytes). Transferring one MByte through a 1 Mbps link lasts 8.39 seconds.
In computer networks, the bit rate of the physical layer is always expressed in bits per second. One Mbps is one million bits per second and one Gbps is one billion bits per second. This is in contrast with memory specifications that are usually expressed in bytes (8 bits), KiloBytes (1024 bytes) or MegaBytes (1048576 bytes). Transferring one MByte through a 1 Mbps link lasts 8.39 seconds.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
Bits per second
Bits par seconde
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
Bits per second
Bits per second
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
1 Kbps
1 Kbps
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
1 Kbps
1 Kbps
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
:math:`10^3`
:math:`10^3`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
:math:`10^3`
:math:`10^3`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
1 Mbps
1 Mbps
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
1 Mbps
1 Mbps
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
:math:`10^6`
:math:`10^6`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
:math:`10^6`
:math:`10^6`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
1 Gbps
1 Gbps
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
1 Gbps
1 Gbps
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
:math:`10^9`
:math:`10^9`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
:math:`10^9`
:math:`10^9`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
1 Tbps
1 Tbps
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
1 Tbps
1 Tbps
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
:math:`10^{12}`
:math:`10^{12}`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
:math:`10^{12}`
:math:`10^{12}`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
To understand some of the principles behind the physical transmission of information, let us consider the simple case of an electrical wire that is used to transmit bits. Assume that the two communicating hosts want to transmit one thousand bits per second. To transmit these bits, the two hosts can agree on the following rules :
Pour comprendre les principes de la transmission physique d'information, considérons le cas d'un fil électrique qui est utilisé pour transmettre des bits. Supposons que les deux hôtes qui communiquent veulent transmettre un millier de bits par seconde. Pour transmettre ces bits, les deux hôtes peuvent se mettre d'accord sur les règles suivantes :
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
To understand some of the principles behind the physical transmission of information, let us consider the simple case of an electrical wire that is used to transmit bits. Assume that the two communicating hosts want to transmit one thousand bits per second. To transmit these bits, the two hosts can agree on the following rules :
To understand some of the principles behind the physical transmission of information, let us consider the simple case of an electrical wire that is used to transmit bits. Assume that the two communicating hosts want to transmit one thousand bits per second. To transmit these bits, the two hosts can agree on the following rules :
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
On the sender side :
Du côté de l'émetteur :
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
On the sender side :
On the sender side :
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
set the voltage on the electrical wire at ``+5V`` during one millisecond to transmit a bit set to `1`
mettre la tension sur le fil électeique à ``+5V`` pendant une milliseconde pour transmettre un bit mis à `1`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
set the voltage on the electrical wire at ``+5V`` during one millisecond to transmit a bit set to `1`
set the voltage on the electrical wire at ``+5V`` during one millisecond to transmit a bit set to `1`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
set the voltage on the electrical wire at ``-5V`` during one millisecond to transmit a bit set to `0`
mettre la tension sur le fil électrique à ``-5V`` pendant une milliseconde pour transmettre un bit mis à `0`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
set the voltage on the electrical wire at ``-5V`` during one millisecond to transmit a bit set to `0`
set the voltage on the electrical wire at ``-5V`` during one millisecond to transmit a bit set to `0`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
On the receiver side :
Du côté du récepteur :
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
On the receiver side :
On the receiver side :
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
every millisecond, record the voltage applied on the electrical wire. If the voltage is set to ``+5V``, record the reception of bit `1`. Otherwise, record the reception of bit `0`
chaque milliseconde, enregistrer la tension appliquée sur le fil électrique. Si la tension est de ``+5V``, enregistrer le bit reçu comme étant `1`. Sinon, enregistrer le bit reçu comme étant `0`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
every millisecond, record the voltage applied on the electrical wire. If the voltage is set to ``+5V``, record the reception of bit `1`. Otherwise, record the reception of bit `0`
every millisecond, record the voltage applied on the electrical wire. If the voltage is set to ``+5V``, record the reception of bit `1`. Otherwise, record the reception of bit `0`
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
This transmission scheme has been used in some early networks. We use it as a basis to understand how hosts communicate. From a Computer Science viewpoint, dealing with voltages is unusual. Computer scientists frequently rely on models that enable them to reason about the issues that they face without having to consider all implementation details. The physical transmission scheme described above can be represented by using a `time-sequence diagram`.
Ce procédé de transmission a été utilisé pour quelques-uns des tout premiers réseaux. Nous l'utilisons comme base pour comprendre comment deux hôtes communiquent. Pour un informaticien, travailler avec des tensions est inhabituel. Les informaticiens reposent plutôt sur des modèles qui leur permettent de raisonner aux problèmes auxquels ils font face sans avoir à prendre en compte tous les détails d'implémentation. Le procédé de transmission physique décrit ci-dessus peut être représenté en utilisant un `diagramme de séquence`.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
This transmission scheme has been used in some early networks. We use it as a basis to understand how hosts communicate. From a Computer Science viewpoint, dealing with voltages is unusual. Computer scientists frequently rely on models that enable them to reason about the issues that they face without having to consider all implementation details. The physical transmission scheme described above can be represented by using a `time-sequence diagram`.
This transmission scheme has been used in some early networks. We use it as a basis to understand how hosts communicate. From a Computer Science viewpoint, dealing with voltages is unusual. Computer scientists frequently rely on models that enable them to reason about the issues that they face without having to consider all implementation details. The physical transmission scheme described above can be represented by using a `time-sequence diagram`.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
A `time-sequence diagram` describes the interactions between communicating hosts. By convention, the communicating hosts are represented in the left and right parts of the diagram while the electrical link occupies the middle of the diagram. In such a time-sequence diagram, time flows from the top to the bottom of the diagram. The transmission of one bit of information is represented by three arrows. Starting from the left, the first horizontal arrow represents the request to transmit one bit of information. This request is represented by a `primitive` which can be considered as a kind of procedure call. This primitive has one parameter (the bit being transmitted) and a name (`DATA.request` in this example). By convention, all primitives that are named `something.request` correspond to a request to transmit some information. The dashed arrow indicates the transmission of the corresponding electrical signal on the wire. Electrical and optical signals do not travel instantaneously. The diagonal dashed arrow indicates that it takes some time for the electrical signal to be transmitted from `Host A` to `Host B`. Upon reception of the electrical signal, the electronics on `Host B`'s network interface detects the voltage and converts it into a bit. This bit is delivered as a `DATA.indication` primitive. All primitives that are named `something.indication` correspond to the reception of some information. The dashed lines also represents the relationship between two (or more) primitives. Such a time-sequence diagram provides information about the ordering of the different primitives, but the distance between two primitives does not represent a precise amount of time.
A `time-sequence diagram` describes the interactions between communicating hosts. By convention, the communicating hosts are represented in the left and right parts of the diagram while the electrical link occupies the middle of the diagram. In such a time-sequence diagram, time flows from the top to the bottom of the diagram. The transmission of one bit of information is represented by three arrows. Starting from the left, the first horizontal arrow represents the request to transmit one bit of information. This request is represented by a `primitive` which can be considered as a kind of procedure call. This primitive has one parameter (the bit being transmitted) and a name (`DATA.request` in this example). By convention, all primitives that are named `something.request` correspond to a request to transmit some information. The dashed arrow indicates the transmission of the corresponding electrical signal on the wire. Electrical and optical signals do not travel instantaneously. The diagonal dashed arrow indicates that it takes some time for the electrical signal to be transmitted from `Host A` to `Host B`. Upon reception of the electrical signal, the electronics on `Host B`'s network interface detects the voltage and converts it into a bit. This bit is delivered as a `DATA.indication` primitive. All primitives that are named `something.indication` correspond to the reception of some information. The dashed lines also represents the relationship between two (or more) primitives. Such a time-sequence diagram provides information about the ordering of the different primitives, but the distance between two primitives does not represent a precise amount of time.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
Time-sequence diagrams are useful when trying to understand the characteristics of a given communication scheme. When considering the above transmission scheme, it is useful to evaluate whether this scheme allows the two communicating hosts to reliably exchange information. A digital transmission is considered as reliable when a sequence of bits that is transmitted by a host is received correctly at the other end of the wire. In practice, achieving perfect reliability when transmitting information using the above scheme is difficult. Several problems can occur with such a transmission scheme.
Time-sequence diagrams are useful when trying to understand the characteristics of a given communication scheme. When considering the above transmission scheme, it is useful to evaluate whether this scheme allows the two communicating hosts to reliably exchange information. A digital transmission is considered as reliable when a sequence of bits that is transmitted by a host is received correctly at the other end of the wire. In practice, achieving perfect reliability when transmitting information using the above scheme is difficult. Several problems can occur with such a transmission scheme.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
The first problem is that electrical transmission can be affected by electromagnetic interference. Interference can have various sources including natural phenomenons (like thunderstorms, variations of the magnetic field,...) but also other electrical signals (such as interference from neighboring cables, interference from neighboring antennas,...). Due to these various types of interference, there is unfortunately no guarantee that when a host transmit one bit on a wire, the same bit is received at the other end. This is illustrated in the figure below where a `DATA.request(0)` on the left host leads to a `Data.indication(1)` on the right host.
The first problem is that electrical transmission can be affected by electromagnetic interference. Interference can have various sources including natural phenomenons (like thunderstorms, variations of the magnetic field,...) but also other electrical signals (such as interference from neighboring cables, interference from neighboring antennas,...). Due to these various types of interference, there is unfortunately no guarantee that when a host transmit one bit on a wire, the same bit is received at the other end. This is illustrated in the figure below where a `DATA.request(0)` on the left host leads to a `Data.indication(1)` on the right host.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
With the above transmission scheme, a bit is transmitted by setting the voltage on the electrical cable to a specific value during some period of time. We have seen that due to electromagnetic interference, the voltage measured by the receiver can differ from the voltage set by the transmitter. This is the main cause of transmission errors. However, this is not the only type of problem that can occur. Besides defining the voltages for bits `0` and `1`, the above transmission scheme also specifies the duration of each bit. If one million bits are sent every second, then each bit lasts 1 microsecond. On each host, the transmission (resp. the reception) of each bit is triggered by a local clock having a 1 MHz frequency. These clocks are the second source of problems when transmitting bits over a wire. Although the two clocks have the same specification, they run on different hosts, possibly at a different temperature and with a different source of energy. In practice, it is possible that the two clocks do not operate at exactly the same frequency. Assume that the clock of the transmitting host operates at exactly 1000000 Hz while the receiving clock operates at 999999 Hz. This is a very small difference between the two clocks. However, when using the clock to transmit bits, this difference is important. With its 1000000 Hz clock, the transmitting host will generate one million bits during a period of one second. During the same period, the receiving host will sense the wire 999999 times and thus will receive one bit less than the bits originally transmitted. This small difference in clock frequencies implies that bits can "disappear" during their transmission on an electrical cable. This is illustrated in the figure below.
Avec le schéma de transmission ci-dessus, un bit est transmis en fixant la tension sur un câble électrique à une valeur spécifique durant un laps de temps donné. Nous avons vu qu'en raison des interférences électromagnétiques, la tension mesurée par le récepteur peut être différente de celle définie par l'émetteur. C'est la cause principale des erreurs de transmission. Cependant, ce n'est pas l'unique type de problème qui peut survenir. En plus de définir tes tensions spécifiques pour les bits `0` et `1`, le schéma ci-dessus définit aussi la durée de chaque bit. Si un million de bits sont envoyés chaque seconde, alors chaque bit a une durée de 1 microseconde. Sur chaque hôte, la transmission (resp. la réception) de chaque bit est déclenchée par une horloge locale ayant une fréquence de 1 MHz. Ces horloges constituent la deuxième source de problèmes lors de la transmission de bits par câble. Bien que les deux horloges aient les mêmes caractéristiques, elles tournent sur des hôtes différents, potentiellement à des températures différentes et des sources d'énergie différentes. En pratique, il est possible que les deux horloges ne soient pas précisément synchronisées sur la même fréquence. Considérons que l'horloge de l'émetteur tourne à précisément 1000000 Hz alors que l'horloge du récepteur tourne à 999999 Hz. Une différence minime entre les deux horloges, pourtant, cette différence est importante lorsque l'on utilise l'une ou l'autre horloge pour transmettre un bit. Dans le cas de l'horloge à 1 MHz, il y aura un million de bits générés durant une période de une seconde alors que pour la même durée, le récepteur ne détectera le signal sur le câble que 999999 fois et recevra un bit de moins que ce qui a été transmis initialement. Cette légère différence de fréquence implique la disparition potentielle de certains bits durant leur transmission sur un câble électrique. Ce phénomène est illustré sur la figure ci-dessous.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
With the above transmission scheme, a bit is transmitted by setting the voltage on the electrical cable to a specific value during some period of time. We have seen that due to electromagnetic interference, the voltage measured by the receiver can differ from the voltage set by the transmitter. This is the main cause of transmission errors. However, this is not the only type of problem that can occur. Besides defining the voltages for bits `0` and `1`, the above transmission scheme also specifies the duration of each bit. If one million bits are sent every second, then each bit lasts 1 microsecond. On each host, the transmission (resp. the reception) of each bit is triggered by a local clock having a 1 MHz frequency. These clocks are the second source of problems when transmitting bits over a wire. Although the two clocks have the same specification, they run on different hosts, possibly at a different temperature and with a different source of energy. In practice, it is possible that the two clocks do not operate at exactly the same frequency. Assume that the clock of the transmitting host operates at exactly 1000000 Hz while the receiving clock operates at 999999 Hz. This is a very small difference between the two clocks. However, when using the clock to transmit bits, this difference is important. With its 1000000 Hz clock, the transmitting host will generate one million bits during a period of one second. During the same period, the receiving host will sense the wire 999999 times and thus will receive one bit less than the bits originally transmitted. This small difference in clock frequencies implies that bits can "disappear" during their transmission on an electrical cable. This is illustrated in the figure below.
With the above transmission scheme, a bit is transmitted by setting the voltage on the electrical cable to a specific value during some period of time. We have seen that due to electromagnetic interference, the voltage measured by the receiver can differ from the voltage set by the transmitter. This is the main cause of transmission errors. However, this is not the only type of problem that can occur. Besides defining the voltages for bits `0` and `1`, the above transmission scheme also specifies the duration of each bit. If one million bits are sent every second, then each bit lasts 1 microsecond. On each host, the transmission (resp. the reception) of each bit is triggered by a local clock having a 1 MHz frequency. These clocks are the second source of problems when transmitting bits over a wire. Although the two clocks have the same specification, they run on different hosts, possibly at a different temperature and with a different source of energy. In practice, it is possible that the two clocks do not operate at exactly the same frequency. Assume that the clock of the transmitting host operates at exactly 1000000 Hz while the receiving clock operates at 999999 Hz. This is a very small difference between the two clocks. However, when using the clock to transmit bits, this difference is important. With its 1000000 Hz clock, the transmitting host will generate one million bits during a period of one second. During the same period, the receiving host will sense the wire 999999 times and thus will receive one bit less than the bits originally transmitted. This small difference in clock frequencies implies that bits can "disappear" during their transmission on an electrical cable. This is illustrated in the figure below.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
A similar reasoning applies when the clock of the sending host is slower than the clock of the receiving host. In this case, the receiver will sense more bits than the bits that have been transmitted by the sender. This is illustrated in the figure below where the second bit received on the right was not transmitted by the left host.
Un raisonnement similaire s'applique lorsque la fréquence d'horloge de l'hôte émetteur est plus basse que celle de l'hôte récepteur. Dans ce cas, le récepteur va mesurer plus de bits que ce qui n'a été transmis par l'émetteur. La figure ci-dessous illustre ce phénomène. Le second bit reçu à droite n'a pas été transmis par l'hôte de gauche.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
A similar reasoning applies when the clock of the sending host is slower than the clock of the receiving host. In this case, the receiver will sense more bits than the bits that have been transmitted by the sender. This is illustrated in the figure below where the second bit received on the right was not transmitted by the left host.
A similar reasoning applies when the clock of the sending host is slower than the clock of the receiving host. In this case, the receiver will sense more bits than the bits that have been transmitted by the sender. This is illustrated in the figure below where the second bit received on the right was not transmitted by the left host.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
From a Computer Science viewpoint, the physical transmission of information through a wire is often considered as a black box that allows transmitting bits. This black box is commonly referred to as the `physical layer service` and is represented by using the `DATA.request` and `DATA.indication` primitives introduced earlier. This physical layer service facilitates the sending and receiving of bits, by abstracting the technological details that are involved in the actual transmission of the bits as an electromagnetic signal. However, it is important to remember that the `physical layer service` is imperfect and has the following characteristics :
From a Computer Science viewpoint, the physical transmission of information through a wire is often considered as a black box that allows transmitting bits. This black box is commonly referred to as the `physical layer service` and is represented by using the `DATA.request` and `DATA.indication` primitives introduced earlier. This physical layer service facilitates the sending and receiving of bits, by abstracting the technological details that are involved in the actual transmission of the bits as an electromagnetic signal. However, it is important to remember that the `physical layer service` is imperfect and has the following characteristics :
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
the `Physical layer service` may change, e.g. due to electromagnetic interference, the value of a bit being transmitted
le `service de la couche physique` peut changer, c'est le cas notamment lors d'interférences électromagnétiques où la valeur d'un bit transmis peut être altérée
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
the `Physical layer service` may change, e.g. due to electromagnetic interference, the value of a bit being transmitted
the `Physical layer service` may change, e.g. due to electromagnetic interference, the value of a bit being transmitted
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
the `Physical layer service` may deliver `more` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
le `service de la couche physique` peut délivrer `plus` de bits au récepteur que l'émetteur n'en a réellement envoyé
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
the `Physical layer service` may deliver `more` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
the `Physical layer service` may deliver `more` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
the `Physical layer service` may deliver `fewer` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
le `service de la couche physique` peut délivrer `moins` de bits au récepteur que ce qui a été envoyé par l'émetteur
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
the `Physical layer service` may deliver `fewer` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
the `Physical layer service` may deliver `fewer` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
Many other types of encodings have been defined to transmit information over an electrical cable. All physical layers are able to send and receive physical symbols that represent values `0` and `1`. However, for various reasons that are outside the scope of this chapter, several physical layers exchange other physical symbols as well. For example, the Manchester encoding used in several physical layers can send four different symbols. The Manchester encoding is a differential encoding scheme in which time is divided into fixed-length periods. Each period is divided in two halves and two different voltage levels can be applied. To send a symbol, the sender must set one of these two voltage levels during each half period. To send a `1` (resp. `0`), the sender must set a high (resp. low) voltage during the first half of the period and a low (resp. high) voltage during the second half. This encoding ensures that there will be a transition at the middle of each period and allows the receiver to synchronize its clock to the sender's clock. Apart from the encodings for `0` and `1`, the Manchester encoding also supports two additional symbols : `InvH` and `InvB` where the same voltage level is used for the two half periods. By definition, these two symbols cannot appear inside a frame which is only composed of `0` and `1`. Some technologies use these special symbols as markers for the beginning or end of frames.
De nombreux autres types de codages ont été définis pour transmettre des informations sur un câble électrique. Toutes les couches physiques sont capables d'envoyer et de recevoir des symboles physiques qui représentent les valeurs `0` et `1`. Cependant, pour diverses raisons qui sortent du cadre de ce chapitre, plusieurs couches physiques échangent également d'autres symboles physiques. Par exemple, le codage Manchester utilisé dans plusieurs couches physiques peut envoyer quatre symboles différents. Le codage Manchester est un schéma de codage différentiel dans lequel le temps est divisé en périodes de longueur fixe. Chaque période est divisée en deux moitiés et deux niveaux de tension différents peuvent être appliqués. Pour envoyer un symbole, l'expéditeur doit définir l'un de ces deux niveaux de tension pendant chaque demi-période. Pour envoyer un `1` (resp. `0`), l'expéditeur doit définir une tension élevée (resp. faible) pendant la première moitié de la période et une tension faible (resp. élevée) pendant la seconde moitié. Ce codage garantit qu'il y aura une transition au milieu de chaque période et permet au récepteur de synchroniser son horloge avec celle de l'émetteur. Outre les codages pour `0` et `1`, le codage Manchester supporte également deux symboles supplémentaires : `InvH` et `InvB` où le même niveau de tension est utilisé pour les deux demi-périodes. Par définition, ces deux symboles ne peuvent pas apparaître à l'intérieur d'une trame qui n'est composée que de `0` et `1`. Certaines technologies utilisent ces symboles spéciaux comme marqueurs de début ou de fin de trame.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
Many other types of encodings have been defined to transmit information over an electrical cable. All physical layers are able to send and receive physical symbols that represent values `0` and `1`. However, for various reasons that are outside the scope of this chapter, several physical layers exchange other physical symbols as well. For example, the Manchester encoding used in several physical layers can send four different symbols. The Manchester encoding is a differential encoding scheme in which time is divided into fixed-length periods. Each period is divided in two halves and two different voltage levels can be applied. To send a symbol, the sender must set one of these two voltage levels during each half period. To send a `1` (resp. `0`), the sender must set a high (resp. low) voltage during the first half of the period and a low (resp. high) voltage during the second half. This encoding ensures that there will be a transition at the middle of each period and allows the receiver to synchronize its clock to the sender's clock. Apart from the encodings for `0` and `1`, the Manchester encoding also supports two additional symbols : `InvH` and `InvB` where the same voltage level is used for the two half periods. By definition, these two symbols cannot appear inside a frame which is only composed of `0` and `1`. Some technologies use these special symbols as markers for the beginning or end of frames.
Many other types of encodings have been defined to transmit information over an electrical cable. All physical layers are able to send and receive physical symbols that represent values `0` and `1`. However, for various reasons that are outside the scope of this chapter, several physical layers exchange other physical symbols as well. For example, the Manchester encoding used in several physical layers can send four different symbols. The Manchester encoding is a differential encoding scheme in which time is divided into fixed-length periods. Each period is divided in two halves and two different voltage levels can be applied. To send a symbol, the sender must set one of these two voltage levels during each half period. To send a `1` (resp. `0`), the sender must set a high (resp. low) voltage during the first half of the period and a low (resp. high) voltage during the second half. This encoding ensures that there will be a transition at the middle of each period and allows the receiver to synchronize its clock to the sender's clock. Apart from the encodings for `0` and `1`, the Manchester encoding also supports two additional symbols : `InvH` and `InvB` where the same voltage level is used for the two half periods. By definition, these two symbols cannot appear inside a frame which is only composed of `0` and `1`. Some technologies use these special symbols as markers for the beginning or end of frames.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
Manchester encoding
Le codage Manchester
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
Manchester encoding
Manchester encoding
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
All the functions related to the physical transmission or information through a wire (or a wireless link) are usually known as the `physical layer`. The physical layer allows thus two or more entities that are directly attached to the same transmission medium to exchange bits. Being able to exchange bits is important as virtually any information can be encoded as a sequence of bits. Electrical engineers are used to processing streams of bits, but computer scientists usually prefer to deal with higher level concepts. A similar issue arises with file storage. Storage devices such as hard-disks also store streams of bits. There are hardware devices that process the bit stream produced by a hard-disk, but computer scientists have designed filesystems to allow applications to easily access such storage devices. These filesystems are typically divided into several layers as well. Hard-disks store sectors of 512 bytes or more. Unix filesystems group sectors in larger blocks that can contain data or `inodes` representing the structure of the filesystem. Finally, applications manipulate files and directories that are translated in blocks, sectors and eventually bits by the operating system.
All the functions related to the physical transmission or information through a wire (or a wireless link) are usually known as the `physical layer`. The physical layer allows thus two or more entities that are directly attached to the same transmission medium to exchange bits. Being able to exchange bits is important as virtually any information can be encoded as a sequence of bits. Electrical engineers are used to processing streams of bits, but computer scientists usually prefer to deal with higher level concepts. A similar issue arises with file storage. Storage devices such as hard-disks also store streams of bits. There are hardware devices that process the bit stream produced by a hard-disk, but computer scientists have designed filesystems to allow applications to easily access such storage devices. These filesystems are typically divided into several layers as well. Hard-disks store sectors of 512 bytes or more. Unix filesystems group sectors in larger blocks that can contain data or `inodes` representing the structure of the filesystem. Finally, applications manipulate files and directories that are translated in blocks, sectors and eventually bits by the operating system.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
All the functions related to the physical transmission or information through a wire (or a wireless link) are usually known as the `physical layer`. The physical layer allows thus two or more entities that are directly attached to the same transmission medium to exchange bits. Being able to exchange bits is important as virtually any information can be encoded as a sequence of bits. Electrical engineers are used to processing streams of bits, but computer scientists usually prefer to deal with higher level concepts. A similar issue arises with file storage. Storage devices such as hard-disks also store streams of bits. There are hardware devices that process the bit stream produced by a hard-disk, but computer scientists have designed filesystems to allow applications to easily access such storage devices. These filesystems are typically divided into several layers as well. Hard-disks store sectors of 512 bytes or more. Unix filesystems group sectors in larger blocks that can contain data or `inodes` representing the structure of the filesystem. Finally, applications manipulate files and directories that are translated in blocks, sectors and eventually bits by the operating system.
Toutes les fonctions liées à la transmission physique ou à l'information transmise à travers un câble (ou une connexion sans fil) sont regroupées sous l'appellation `couche physique`. La couche physique permet ainsi à deux entités ou plus qui sont directement reliées par un même moyen de transmission d'échanger des bits. Pouvoir échanger des bits est fondamental puisque pratiquement n'importe quelle information peut être encodée comme une séquence de bits. Les ingénieurs électriciens sont habitués à traiter des flux de bits mais les informaticiens préfèrent habituellement faire usage de concepts plus haut niveau. Un problème similaire se pose quant aux systèmes de fichiers. Les périphériques de stockage tels que les disques durs stockent également des flux de bits. Il y a des périphériques matériels qui traitent directement le flux de bit produit par le disque dur mais les informaticiens ont conçu des systèmes de fichiers destinés à permettre aux applications d'accéder facilement à ces périphériques de stockage. Ces systèmes de fichiers sont généralement également divisés en plusieurs couches. Les disques durs stockent des secteurs de 512 bytes ou plus. Les systèmes de fichiers Unix regroupent les secteurs par blocs plus larges pouvant contenir des données ou `inodes` représentant la structure du système de fichiers. Enfin, les applications manipulent des fichiers et répertoires qui sont traduits en blocs, secteurs et enfin en bits par le système d'exploitation.
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Computer networks use a similar approach. Each layer provides a service that is built above the underlying layer and is closer to the needs of the applications. The datalink layer builds upon the service provided by the physical layer. We will see that it also contains several functions.
Computer networks use a similar approach. Each layer provides a service that is built above the underlying layer and is closer to the needs of the applications. The datalink layer builds upon the service provided by the physical layer. We will see that it also contains several functions.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
Computer networks use a similar approach. Each layer provides a service that is built above the underlying layer and is closer to the needs of the applications. The datalink layer builds upon the service provided by the physical layer. We will see that it also contains several functions.
Les réseaux informatiques utilisent une approche similaire. Chaque couche fournit un service construit sur la couche en-dessous et est plus proche des besoins des applications. La couche de liaison de données est construite à partir du service fourni par la couche physique. Nous allons voir qu'elle contient aussi plusieurs fonctions.
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The datalink layer
The datalink layer
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — French
The datalink layer
La couche de liaison de données
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Computer scientists are usually not interested in exchanging bits between two hosts. They prefer to write software that deals with larger blocks of data in order to transmit messages or complete files. Thanks to the physical layer service, it is possible to send a continuous stream of bits between two hosts. This stream of bits can include logical blocks of data, but we need to be able to extract each block of data from the bit stream despite the imperfections of the physical layer. In many networks, the basic unit of information exchanged between two directly connected hosts is often called a `frame`. A `frame` can be defined as a sequence of bits that has a particular syntax or structure. We will see examples of such frames later in this chapter.
Computer scientists are usually not interested in exchanging bits between two hosts. They prefer to write software that deals with larger blocks of data in order to transmit messages or complete files. Thanks to the physical layer service, it is possible to send a continuous stream of bits between two hosts. This stream of bits can include logical blocks of data, but we need to be able to extract each block of data from the bit stream despite the imperfections of the physical layer. In many networks, the basic unit of information exchanged between two directly connected hosts is often called a `frame`. A `frame` can be defined as a sequence of bits that has a particular syntax or structure. We will see examples of such frames later in this chapter.
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To enable the transmission/reception of frames, the first problem to be solved is how to encode a frame as a sequence of bits, so that the receiver can easily recover the received frame despite the limitations of the physical layer.
To enable the transmission/reception of frames, the first problem to be solved is how to encode a frame as a sequence of bits, so that the receiver can easily recover the received frame despite the limitations of the physical layer.
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If the physical layer were perfect, the problem would be very simple. We would simply need to define how to encode each frame as a sequence of consecutive bits. The receiver would then easily be able to extract the frames from the received bits. Unfortunately, the imperfections of the physical layer make this framing problem slightly more complex. Several solutions have been proposed and are used in practice in different network technologies.
If the physical layer were perfect, the problem would be very simple. We would simply need to define how to encode each frame as a sequence of consecutive bits. The receiver would then easily be able to extract the frames from the received bits. Unfortunately, the imperfections of the physical layer make this framing problem slightly more complex. Several solutions have been proposed and are used in practice in different network technologies.
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Framing
Framing
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The `framing` problem can be defined as : "`How does a sender encode frames so that the receiver can efficiently extract them from the stream of bits that it receives from the physical layer`".
The `framing` problem can be defined as : "`How does a sender encode frames so that the receiver can efficiently extract them from the stream of bits that it receives from the physical layer`".
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A first solution to this problem is to require the physical layer to remain idle for some time after the transmission of each frame. These idle periods can be detected by the receiver and serve as a marker to delineate frame boundaries. Unfortunately, this solution is not acceptable for two reasons. First, some physical layers cannot remain idle and always need to transmit bits. Second, inserting an idle period between frames decreases the maximum bit rate that can be achieved.
A first solution to this problem is to require the physical layer to remain idle for some time after the transmission of each frame. These idle periods can be detected by the receiver and serve as a marker to delineate frame boundaries. Unfortunately, this solution is not acceptable for two reasons. First, some physical layers cannot remain idle and always need to transmit bits. Second, inserting an idle period between frames decreases the maximum bit rate that can be achieved.
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Bit rate and bandwidth
Bit rate and bandwidth
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Bit rate and bandwidth are often used to characterize the transmission capacity of the physical service. The original definition of `bandwidth <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bandwidth>`_, as listed in the `Webster dictionary <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary>`_ is `a range of radio frequencies which is occupied by a modulated carrier wave, which is assigned to a service, or over which a device can operate`. This definition corresponds to the characteristics of a given transmission medium or receiver. For example, the human ear is able to decode sounds in roughly the 0-20 KHz frequency range. By extension, bandwidth is also used to represent the capacity of a communication system in bits per second. For example, a Gigabit Ethernet link is theoretically capable of transporting one billion bits per second.
Bit rate and bandwidth are often used to characterize the transmission capacity of the physical service. The original definition of `bandwidth <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bandwidth>`_, as listed in the `Webster dictionary <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary>`_ is `a range of radio frequencies which is occupied by a modulated carrier wave, which is assigned to a service, or over which a device can operate`. This definition corresponds to the characteristics of a given transmission medium or receiver. For example, the human ear is able to decode sounds in roughly the 0-20 KHz frequency range. By extension, bandwidth is also used to represent the capacity of a communication system in bits per second. For example, a Gigabit Ethernet link is theoretically capable of transporting one billion bits per second.
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Given that multi-symbol encodings cannot be used by all physical layers, a generic solution which can be used with any physical layer that is able to transmit and receive only bits `0` and `1` is required. This generic solution is called `stuffing` and two variants exist : `bit stuffing` and `character stuffing`. To enable a receiver to easily delineate the frame boundaries, these two techniques reserve special bit strings as frame boundary markers and encode the frames so that these special bit strings do not appear inside the frames.
Given that multi-symbol encodings cannot be used by all physical layers, a generic solution which can be used with any physical layer that is able to transmit and receive only bits `0` and `1` is required. This generic solution is called `stuffing` and two variants exist : `bit stuffing` and `character stuffing`. To enable a receiver to easily delineate the frame boundaries, these two techniques reserve special bit strings as frame boundary markers and encode the frames so that these special bit strings do not appear inside the frames.
cnp3-ebook/principles/reliability — English
`Bit stuffing` reserves the `01111110` bit string as the frame boundary marker and ensures that there will never be six consecutive `1` symbols transmitted by the physical layer inside a frame. With bit stuffing, a frame is sent as follows. First, the sender transmits the marker, i.e. `01111110`. Then, it sends all the bits of the frame and inserts an additional bit set to `0` after each sequence of five consecutive `1` bits. This ensures that the sent frame never contains a sequence of six consecutive bits set to `1`. As a consequence, the marker pattern cannot appear inside the frame sent. The marker is also sent to mark the end of the frame. The receiver performs the opposite to decode a received frame. It first detects the beginning of the frame thanks to the `01111110` marker. Then, it processes the received bits and counts the number of consecutive bits set to `1`. If a `0` follows five consecutive bits set to `1`, this bit is removed since it was inserted by the sender. If a `1` follows five consecutive bits sets to `1`, it indicates a marker if it is followed by a bit set to `0`. The table below illustrates the application of bit stuffing to some frames.
`Bit stuffing` reserves the `01111110` bit string as the frame boundary marker and ensures that there will never be six consecutive `1` symbols transmitted by the physical layer inside a frame. With bit stuffing, a frame is sent as follows. First, the sender transmits the marker, i.e. `01111110`. Then, it sends all the bits of the frame and inserts an additional bit set to `0` after each sequence of five consecutive `1` bits. This ensures that the sent frame never contains a sequence of six consecutive bits set to `1`. As a consequence, the marker pattern cannot appear inside the frame sent. The marker is also sent to mark the end of the frame. The receiver performs the opposite to decode a received frame. It first detects the beginning of the frame thanks to the `01111110` marker. Then, it processes the received bits and counts the number of consecutive bits set to `1`. If a `0` follows five consecutive bits set to `1`, this bit is removed since it was inserted by the sender. If a `1` follows five consecutive bits sets to `1`, it indicates a marker if it is followed by a bit set to `0`. The table below illustrates the application of bit stuffing to some frames.
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Original frame
Original frame
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Transmitted frame
Transmitted frame
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0001001001001001001000011
0001001001001001001000011
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01111110000100100100100100100001101111110
01111110000100100100100100100001101111110
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0110111111111111111110010
0110111111111111111110010
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01111110011011111011111011111011001001111110
01111110011011111011111011111011001001111110
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0111110
0111110
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011111100111110001111110
011111100111110001111110
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01111110
01111110
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0111111001111101001111110
0111111001111101001111110
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For example, consider the transmission of `0110111111111111111110010`. The sender will first send the `01111110` marker followed by `011011111`. After these five consecutive bits set to `1`, it inserts a bit set to `0` followed by `11111`. A new `0` is inserted, followed by `11111`. A new `0` is inserted followed by the end of the frame `110010` and the `01111110` marker.
For example, consider the transmission of `0110111111111111111110010`. The sender will first send the `01111110` marker followed by `011011111`. After these five consecutive bits set to `1`, it inserts a bit set to `0` followed by `11111`. A new `0` is inserted, followed by `11111`. A new `0` is inserted followed by the end of the frame `110010` and the `01111110` marker.
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`Bit stuffing` increases the number of bits required to transmit each frame. The worst case for bit stuffing is of course a long sequence of bits set to `1` inside the frame. If transmission errors occur, stuffed bits or markers can be in error. In these cases, the frame affected by the error and possibly the next frame will not be correctly decoded by the receiver, but it will be able to resynchronize itself at the next valid marker.
`Bit stuffing` increases the number of bits required to transmit each frame. The worst case for bit stuffing is of course a long sequence of bits set to `1` inside the frame. If transmission errors occur, stuffed bits or markers can be in error. In these cases, the frame affected by the error and possibly the next frame will not be correctly decoded by the receiver, but it will be able to resynchronize itself at the next valid marker.
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`Bit stuffing` can be easily implemented in hardware. However, implementing it in software is difficult given the complexity of performing bit manipulations in software. Software implementations prefer to process characters than bits, software-based datalink layers usually use `character stuffing`. This technique operates on frames that contain an integer number of characters. In computer networks, characters are usually encoded by relying on the :term:`ASCII` table. This table defines the encoding of various alphanumeric characters as a sequence of bits. :rfc:`20` provides the ASCII table that is used by many protocols on the Internet. For example, the table defines the following binary representations :
`Bit stuffing` can be easily implemented in hardware. However, implementing it in software is difficult given the complexity of performing bit manipulations in software. Software implementations prefer to process characters than bits, software-based datalink layers usually use `character stuffing`. This technique operates on frames that contain an integer number of characters. In computer networks, characters are usually encoded by relying on the :term:`ASCII` table. This table defines the encoding of various alphanumeric characters as a sequence of bits. :rfc:`20` provides the ASCII table that is used by many protocols on the Internet. For example, the table defines the following binary representations :
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`A` : `1000011` b
`A` : `1000011` b
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`0` : `0110000` b
`0` : `0110000` b