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`Bit stuffing` increases the number of bits required to transmit each frame. The worst case for bit stuffing is of course a long sequence of bits set to `1` inside the frame. If transmission errors occur, stuffed bits or markers can be in error. In these cases, the frame affected by the error and possibly the next frame will not be correctly decoded by the receiver, but it will be able to resynchronize itself at the next valid marker.
`Bit stuffing` can be easily implemented in hardware. However, implementing it in software is difficult given the complexity of performing bit manipulations in software. Software implementations prefer to process characters than bits, software-based datalink layers usually use `character stuffing`. This technique operates on frames that contain an integer number of characters. In computer networks, characters are usually encoded by relying on the :term:`ASCII` table. This table defines the encoding of various alphanumeric characters as a sequence of bits. :rfc:`20` provides the ASCII table that is used by many protocols on the Internet. For example, the table defines the following binary representations :
`A` : `1000011` b
`0` : `0110000` b
`z` : `1111010` b
`@` : `1000000` b
`space` : `0100000` b
In addition, the :term:`ASCII` table also defines several non-printable or control characters. These characters were designed to allow an application to control a printer or a terminal. These control characters include `CR` and `LF`, that are used to terminate a line, and the `BEL` character which causes the terminal to emit a sound.
`NUL`: `0000000` b
`BEL`: `0000111` b
`CR` : `0001101` b
`LF` : `0001010` b
`DLE`: `0010000` b
`STX`: `0000010` b
`ETX`: `0000011` b
Some characters are used as markers to delineate the frame boundaries. Many `character stuffing` techniques use the `DLE`, `STX` and `ETX` characters of the ASCII character set. `DLE STX` (resp. `DLE ETX`) is used to mark the beginning (end) of a frame. When transmitting a frame, the sender adds a `DLE` character after each transmitted `DLE` character. This ensures that none of the markers can appear inside the transmitted frame. The receiver detects the frame boundaries and removes the second `DLE` when it receives two consecutive `DLE` characters. For example, to transmit frame `1 2 3 DLE STX 4`, a sender will first send `DLE STX` as a marker, followed by `1 2 3 DLE`. Then, the sender transmits an additional `DLE` character followed by `STX 4` and the `DLE ETX` marker.
**1** **2** **3** **4**
`DLE STX` **1** **2** **3** **4** `DLE ETX`
**1** **2** **3** **DLE** **STX** **4**
`DLE STX` **1** **2** **3** **DLE** `DLE` **STX** `4` `DLE ETX`
**DLE STX DLE ETX**
`DLE STX` **DLE** `DLE` **STX** **DLE** `DLE` ETX** `DLE ETX`
`Character stuffing`, like bit stuffing, increases the length of the transmitted frames. For `character stuffing`, the worst frame is a frame containing many `DLE` characters. When transmission errors occur, the receiver may incorrectly decode one or two frames (e.g. if the errors occur in the markers). However, it will be able to resynchronize itself with the next correctly received markers.
Bit stuffing and character stuffing allow recovering frames from a stream of bits or bytes. This framing mechanism provides a richer service than the physical layer. Through the framing service, one can send and receive complete frames. This framing service can also be represented by using the `DATA.request` and `DATA.indication` primitives. This is illustrated in the figure below, assuming hypothetical frames containing four useful bits and one bit of framing for graphical reasons.
We can now build upon the framing mechanism to allow the hosts to exchange frames containing an integer number of bits or bytes. Once the framing problem has been solved, we can focus on designing a technique that allows reliably exchanging frames.
Recovering from transmission errors
In this section, we develop a reliable datalink protocol running above the physical layer service. To design this protocol, we first assume that the physical layer provides a perfect service. We will then develop solutions to recover from the transmission errors.
The datalink layer is designed to send and receive frames on behalf of a user. We model these interactions by using the `DATA.req` and `DATA.ind` primitives. However, to simplify the presentation and to avoid confusion between a `DATA.req` primitive issued by the user of the datalink layer entity, and a `DATA.req` issued by the datalink layer entity itself, we will use the following terminology :
the interactions between the user and the datalink layer entity are represented by using the classical `DATA.req` and the `DATA.ind` primitives
the interactions between the datalink layer entity and the framing sub-layer are represented by using `send` instead of `DATA.req` and `recvd` instead of `DATA.ind`
When running on top of a perfect framing sub-layer, a datalink entity can simply issue a `send(SDU)` upon arrival of a `DATA.req(SDU)` [#fsdu]_. Similarly, the receiver issues a `DATA.ind(SDU)` upon receipt of a `recvd(SDU)`. Such a simple protocol is sufficient when a single SDU is sent. This is illustrated in the figure below.

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Source string location
../../principles/reliability.rst:264
String age
4 years ago
Source string age
4 years ago
Translation file
locale/pot/principles/reliability.pot, string 78