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A `segment` also contains control information, usually stored inside a `header` and the payload that comes from the application. To detect transmission errors, transport protocols rely on checksums or CRCs like the datalink layer protocols.
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In the previous sections, we have described services that are provided by the transport layer. However, it is important to note that the notion of service is more general than in the transport layer. As explained earlier, the network layer also provides a service, which in most networks is an unreliable connectionless service. There are network layers that provide a connection-oriented service. Similarly, the datalink layer also provides services. Some datalink layers will provide a connectionless service. This will be the case in Local Area Networks for examples. Other datalink layers, e.g. in public networks, provide a connection oriented service.
To deal with these issues, the transport layer includes several mechanisms that depend on the service that it provides. It interacts with both the applications and the underlying network layer.
Interactions between the transport layer, its user, and its network layer provider
We have already described in the datalink layers mechanisms to deal with data losses and transmission errors. These techniques are also used in the transport layer.
Connectionless transport
The simplest service that can be provided in the transport layer is the connectionless transport service. Compared to the connectionless network layer service, this transport service includes two additional features :
a `multiplexing technique` that enables several applications running on one host to exchange information with another host
To exchange data, the transport protocol encapsulates the SDU produced by its user inside a `segment`. The `segment` is the unit of transfer of information in the transport layer. Transport layer entities always exchange segments. When a transport layer entity creates a segment, this segment is encapsulated by the network layer into a packet which contains the segment as its payload and a network header. The packet is then encapsulated in a frame to be transmitted in the datalink layer.
A `segment` also contains control information, usually stored inside a `header` and the payload that comes from the application. To detect transmission errors, transport protocols rely on checksums or CRCs like the datalink layer protocols.
The figure below shows a typical usage of port numbers. The client process uses port number `1234` while the server process uses port number `5678`. When the client sends a request, it is identified as originating from port number `1234` on the client host and destined to port number `5678` on the server host. When the server process replies to this request, the server's transport layer returns the reply as originating from port `5678` on the server host and destined to port `1234` on the client host.
To support the connection-oriented service, the transport layer needs to include several mechanisms to enrich the connectionless network-layer service. We discuss these mechanisms in the following sections.
Connection establishment
An important difference between the connectionless service and the connection-oriented one is that the transport entities in the latter maintain some state during lifetime of the connection. This state is created when a connection is established and is removed when it is released.
Unfortunately, this scheme is not sufficient to ensure the reliability of the transport service. Consider for example a short-lived transport connection where a single, but important transfer (e.g. money transfer from a bank account) is sent. Such a short-lived connection starts with a `CR` segment acknowledged by a `CA` segment, then the data segment is sent, acknowledged and the connection terminates. Unfortunately, as the network layer service is unreliable, delays combined to retransmissions may lead to the situation depicted in the figure below, where a delayed `CR` and data segments from a former connection are accepted by the receiving entity as valid segments, and the corresponding data is delivered to the user. Duplicating SDUs is not acceptable, and the transport protocol must solve this problem.
To avoid these duplicates, transport protocols require the network layer to bound the `Maximum Segment Lifetime (MSL)`. The organization of the network must guarantee that no segment remains in the network for longer than `MSL` seconds. For example, on today's Internet, `MSL` is expected to be 2 minutes. To avoid duplicate transport connections, transport protocol entities must be able to safely distinguish between a duplicate `CR` segment and a new `CR` segment, without forcing each transport entity to remember all the transport connections that it has established in the past.
A classical solution to avoid remembering the previous transport connections to detect duplicates is to use a clock inside each transport entity. This `transport clock` has the following characteristics :
the `transport clock` is implemented as a `k` bits counter and its clock cycle is such that :math:`2^k \times cycle >> MSL`. Furthermore, the `transport clock` counter is incremented every clock cycle and after each connection establishment. This clock is illustrated in the figure below.
the `transport clock` must continue to be incremented even if the transport entity stops or reboots
Transport clock

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../../principles/transport.rst:559
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5 years ago
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locale/cs/LC_MESSAGES/principles/transport.po, string 102