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There are two important models used to organize a networked application. The first and oldest model is the client-server model. In this model, a server provides services to clients that exchange information with it. This model is highly asymmetrical: clients send requests and servers perform actions and return responses. It is illustrated in the figure below.
The client-server model was the first model to be used to develop networked applications. This model comes naturally from the mainframes and minicomputers that were the only networked computers used until the 1980s. A minicomputer_ is a multi-user system that is used by tens or more users at the same time. Each user interacts with the minicomputer by using a terminal. Such a terminal was mainly a screen, a keyboard and a cable directly connected to the minicomputer.
There are various types of servers as well as various types of clients. A web server provides information in response to the query sent by its clients. A print server prints documents sent as queries by the client. An email server forwards towards their recipient the email messages sent as queries while a music server delivers the music requested by the client. From the viewpoint of the application developer, the client and the server applications directly exchange messages (the horizontal arrows labeled `Queries` and `Responses` in the above figure), but in practice these messages are exchanged thanks to the underlying layers (the vertical arrows in the above figure). In this chapter, we focus on these horizontal exchanges of messages.
Networked applications do not exchange random messages. In order to ensure that the server is able to understand the queries sent by a client, and also that the client is able to understand the responses sent by the server, they must both agree on a set of syntactical and semantic rules. These rules define the format of the messages exchanged as well as their ordering. This set of rules is called an application-level `protocol`.
An `application-level protocol` is similar to a structured conversation between humans. Assume that Alice wants to know the current time but does not have a watch. If Bob passes close by, the following conversation could take place :
Alice : `Hello`
Bob : `Hello`
Alice : `What time is it ?`
Bob : `11:55`
Alice : `Thank you`
Bob : `You're welcome`
Such a conversation succeeds if both Alice and Bob speak the same language. If Alice meets Tchang who only speaks Chinese, she won't be able to ask him the current time. A conversation between humans can be more complex. For example, assume that Bob is a security guard whose duty is to only allow trusted secret agents to enter a meeting room. If all agents know a secret password, the conversation between Bob and Trudy could be as follows :
Bob : `What is the secret password ?`
Trudy : `1234`
Bob : `This is the correct password, you're welcome`
If Alice wants to enter the meeting room but does not know the password, her conversation could be as follows :
Alice : `3.1415`
Bob : `This is not the correct password.`
Human conversations can be very formal, e.g. when soldiers communicate with their hierarchy, or informal such as when friends discuss. Computers that communicate are more akin to soldiers and require well-defined rules to ensure a successful exchange of information. There are two types of rules that define how information can be exchanged between computers :
Syntactical rules that precisely define the format of the messages that are exchanged. As computers only process bits, the syntactical rules specify how information is encoded as bit strings.
Organization of the information flow. For many applications, the flow of information must be structured and there are precedence relationships between the different types of information. In the time example above, Alice must greet Bob before asking for the current time. Alice would not ask for the current time first and greet Bob afterwards. Such precedence relationships exist in networked applications as well. For example, a server must receive a username and a valid password before accepting more complex commands from its clients.
Let us first discuss the syntactical rules. We will later explain how the information flow can be organized by analyzing real networked applications.
Application-layer protocols exchange two types of messages. Some protocols such as those used to support electronic mail exchange messages expressed as strings or lines of characters. As the transport layer allows hosts to exchange bytes, they need to agree on a common representation of the characters. The first and simplest method to encode characters is to use the :term:`ASCII` table. :rfc:`20` provides the ASCII table that is used by many protocols on the Internet. For example, the table defines the following binary representations :
`A` : `1000011b`
`0` : `0110000b`
`z` : `1111010b`
`@` : `1000000b`
`space` : `0100000b`
In addition, the :term:`ASCII` table also defines several non-printable or control characters. These characters were designed to allow an application to control a printer or a terminal. These control characters include `CR` and `LF`, that are used to terminate a line, and the `Bell` character which causes the terminal to emit a sound.
`carriage return` (`CR`) : `0001101b`
`line feed` (`LF`) : `0001010b`

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../../principles/transport.rst:62
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locale/pot/principles/transport.pot, string 18