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33 ../../protocols/routing.rst:101
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — On the other hand, consider the prefixes `2001:db8:aaaa:0000::/64` and `2001:db8:aaaa:0001::/64` that are inside `area 1`. Router `RA` is the only area border router that is attached to this area. This router can create two different network summary advertisements : 266/10000 · 266
33 ../../protocols/rpc.rst:118
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — `error`: if the method called does not exist or its execution causes an error, the `result` element will be replaced by an `error` element which contains the following members : 177/10000 · 177
33 ../../protocols/ssh.rst:246
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Authenticating messages with HMAC 33/10000 · 33
33 ../../protocols/tcp.rst:111
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A TCP connection is established by using a three-way handshake. The connection establishment phase uses the `sequence number`, the `acknowledgment number` and the `SYN` flag. When a TCP connection is established, the two communicating hosts negotiate the initial sequence number to be used in both directions of the connection. For this, each TCP entity maintains a 32 bits counter, which is supposed to be incremented by one at least every 4 microseconds and after each connection establishment [#ftcpclock]_. When a client host wants to open a TCP connection with a server host, it creates a TCP segment with : 612/10000 · 612
33 ../../protocols/tls.rst:130
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — In a nutshell, the client starts the TLS handshake by proposing a random nonce. The server replies with its random nonce and a certificate that binds its name to a public key. The client generates a MasterSecret that will be used later to derive the session keys and encrypts it with the public key of the server. It also generates a `Finished` message that contains a MAC of all the messages exchanged to allow the server to detect any modification of the messages sent by the client. The server also sends its own `Finished` message. At that point, the client and the server sent encrypted records thanks to the keys derived from the MasterSecret. 649/10000 · 649
33 ../../protocols/wifi.rst:35
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The architecture of WiFi networks is slightly different from the Local Area Networks that we have discussed until now. There are, in practice, two main types of WiFi networks : `independent` or `adhoc` networks and `infrastructure` networks [#fBSS]_. An `independent` or `adhoc` network is composed of a set of devices that communicate with each other. These devices play the same role and the `adhoc` network is usually not connected to the global Internet. `Adhoc` networks are used when for example a few laptops need to exchange information or to connect a computer with a WiFi printer. 591/10000 · 591
33 ../../exercises/reliability.rst:64
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Checksums and CRCs should not be confused with secure hash functions such as MD5 defined in :rfc:`1321` or SHA-1 described in :rfc:`4634`. Secure hash functions are used to ensure that files or sometimes frames/packets/segments have not been modified. Secure hash functions aim at detecting malicious changes while checksums and CRCs only detect random transmission errors. Use the `shasum <http://linux.die.net/man/1/shasum>`_ or `md5sum <http://linux.die.net/man/1/md5sum>`_ programs on Linux to perform the same tests as above. 530/10000 · 530
33 ../../principles/network.rst:219
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — In most networks, manual forwarding tables are not a solution for two reasons. First, most networks are too large to enable a manual computation of the forwarding tables. Second, with manually computed forwarding tables, it is very difficult to deal with link and router failures. Networks need to operate 24h a day, 365 days per year. Many events can affect the routers and links that compose a network. Link failures are regular events in deployed networks. Links can fail for various reasons, including electromagnetic interference, fiber cuts, hardware or software problems on the terminating routers,... Some links also need to be either added to or removed from the network because their utilization is too low or their cost is too high. 743/10000 · 743
33 ../../bibliography.rst:45
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Chi, Y., Oliveira, R., Zhang, L., `Cyclops: The Internet AS-level Observatory <https://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1452335.1452337>`_, ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review (CCR), October 2008 187/10000 · 187
33 ../../principles/reliability.rst:150
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — From a Computer Science viewpoint, the physical transmission of information through a wire is often considered as a black box that allows transmitting bits. This black box is commonly referred to as the `physical layer service` and is represented by using the `DATA.request` and `DATA.indication` primitives introduced earlier. This physical layer service facilitates the sending and receiving of bits, by abstracting the technological details that are involved in the actual transmission of the bits as an electromagnetic signal. However, it is important to remember that the `physical layer service` is imperfect and has the following characteristics : 654/10000 · 654
34 ../../exercises/ex-sharing.rst:630
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Hosts `A` and `B` use the simple congestion control scheme described in the book and router `R1` uses the DECBIT mechanism to mark packets as soon as its buffers contain one packet. Hosts `A` and `B` need to send five segments and start exactly at the same time. How long does each hosts needs to wait to receive the acknowledgment for its fifth segment ? 355/10000 · 355
34 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:286
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The ``2001:6a8:308f:9:0:82ff:fe68:e520`` IPv6 address identifies the computer serving the ``https://beta.computer-networking.info`` website. 140/10000 · 140
34 ../../principles/naming.rst:146
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — This specification evolved later to support domain names written by using other character sets than us-ASCII :rfc:`5890`. This extension is important to support languages other than English, but a detailed discussion is outside the scope of this document. 255/10000 · 255
34 ../../principles/referencemodels.rst:225
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the Internet layer which is equivalent to the network layer of our reference model 82/10000 · 82
34 ../../exercises/network.rst:308
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Some hosts need to be multihomed, i.e. attached to two different network nodes as shown in the figure below. 108/10000 · 108
34 ../../glossary.rst:147
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — EGP 3/10000 · 3
34 ../../exercises/reliability.rst:68
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Discussion questions 20/10000 · 20
34 ../../principles/reliability.rst:152
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the `Physical layer service` may change, e.g. due to electromagnetic interference, the value of a bit being transmitted 119/10000 · 119
34 ../../principles/sharing.rst:226
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — When the network load is low, buffer occupancy and link utilization are low. The buffers on the network nodes are mainly used to absorb very short bursts of packets, but on average the traffic demand is lower than the network capacity. If the demand increases, the average buffer occupancy will increase as well. Measurements have shown that the total throughput increases as well. If the buffer occupancy is zero or very low, transmission opportunities on network links can be missed. This is not the case when the buffer occupancy is small but non zero. However, if the buffer occupancy continues to increase, the buffer becomes overloaded and the throughput does not increase anymore. When the buffer occupancy is close to the maximum, the throughput may decrease. This drop in throughput can be caused by excessive retransmissions of reliable protocols that incorrectly assume that previously sent packets have been lost while they are still waiting in the buffer. The network delay on the other hand increases with the buffer occupancy. In practice, a good operating point for a network buffer is a low occupancy to achieve high link utilization and also low delay for interactive applications. 1199/10000 · 1199
34 ../../principles/transport.rst:87
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — `Bell`: `0000111b` 18/10000 · 18