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42 ../../protocols/ipv6.rst:156

	English A `subnet identifier` that identifies a customer of the ISP 59/10000 · 59
42 ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:169

	English Comments 8/10000 · 8
42 ../../protocols/routing.rst:139

	English How to quickly detect a link failure ? 38/10000 · 38
42 ../../protocols/tcp.rst:129

	English At this point, the TCP connection is open and both the client and the server are allowed to send TCP segments containing data. This is illustrated in the figure below. 167/10000 · 167
42 ../../protocols/tls.rst:190

	English The server replies to the ``ClientHello`` with several messages: 64/10000 · 64
42 ../../protocols/wifi.rst:107

	English When a frame is sent from a WiFi device to a server attached to the same LAN as the access point, the first address of the frame is set to the MAC address of the access point, the second address is set to the MAC address of the source WiFi device and the third address is the address of the final destination on the LAN. When the server replies, it sends an Ethernet frame whose source address is its MAC address and the destination address is the MAC address of the WiFi device. This frame is captured by the access point that converts the Ethernet header into an 802.11 frame header. The 802.11 frame sent by the access point contains three addresses : the first address is the MAC address of the destination WiFi device, the second address is the MAC address of the access point and the third address the MAC address of the server that sent the frame. 854/10000 · 854
42 ../../bibliography.rst:59

	English Dalal, Y. K. and Printis, R. S., `48-bit absolute internet and Ethernet host numbers <http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/800081.802680>`_. In Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium on Data Communications (Mexico City, Mexico, October 27 - 29, 1981). SIGCOMM '81. ACM, New York, NY, 240-245. 280/10000 · 280
42 ../../principles/reliability.rst:201

	English Computer scientists are usually not interested in exchanging bits between two hosts. They prefer to write software that deals with larger blocks of data in order to transmit messages or complete files. Thanks to the physical layer service, it is possible to send a continuous stream of bits between two hosts. This stream of bits can include logical blocks of data, but we need to be able to extract each block of data from the bit stream despite the imperfections of the physical layer. In many networks, the basic unit of information exchanged between two directly connected hosts is often called a `frame`. A `frame` can be defined as a sequence of bits that has a particular syntax or structure. We will see examples of such frames later in this chapter. 758/10000 · 758
43 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:332

	English send the most significant byte followed by the least significant byte 69/10000 · 69
43 ../../exercises/network.rst:369

	English Routes on B 11/10000 · 11
43 ../../glossary.rst:62

	English a frame is the unit of information transfer in the datalink layer 65/10000 · 65
43 ../../principles/referencemodels.rst:276

	English An interesting historical discussion of the OSI-TCP/IP debate may be found in [Russel06]_ 89/10000 · 89
43 ../../principles/reliability.rst:203

	English To enable the transmission/reception of frames, the first problem to be solved is how to encode a frame as a sequence of bits, so that the receiver can easily recover the received frame despite the limitations of the physical layer. 232/10000 · 232
43 ../../principles/sharing.rst:246

	English In datagram networks, `Forward Explicit Congestion Notification` (FECN) can be used. One field of the packet header, typically one bit, is used to indicate congestion. When a host sends a packet, the congestion bit is unset. If the packet passes through a congested node, the congestion bit is set. The destination can then determine the current congestion level by measuring the fraction of the packets that it received with the congestion bit set. It may then return this information to the sending host to allow it to adapt its retransmission rate. Compared to packet discarding, the main advantage of FECN is that hosts can detect congestion explicitly without having to rely on packet losses. 697/10000 · 697
43 ../../principles/transport.rst:108

	English Besides 16 and 32 bit words, some applications need to exchange data structures containing bit fields of various lengths. For example, a message may be composed of a 16 bits field followed by eight, one bit flags, a 24 bits field and two 8 bits bytes. Internet protocol specifications will define such a message by using a representation such as the one below. In this representation, each line corresponds to 32 bits and the vertical lines are used to delineate fields. The numbers above the lines indicate the bit positions in the 32-bits word, with the high order bit at position `0`. 587/10000 · 587
43 ../../principles/security.rst:433

	English To efficiently sign messages, Alice needs to be able to compute a summary of her message in a way that makes prohibits an attacker from generating a different message that has the same summary. `Cryptographic hash functions` were designed to solve this problem. The ideal hash function is a function that returns a different number for every possible input. In practice, it is impossible to find such a function. Cryptographic hash functions are an approximation of this perfect summarization function. They compute a summary of a given message in 128, 160, 256 bits or more. They also exhibit the `avalanche effect`. This effect indicates that a small change in the message causes a large change in the hash value. Finally hash functions are very difficult to invert. Knowing a hash value, it is computationally very difficult to find the corresponding input message. Several hash functions have been proposed by cryptographers. The most popular ones are : 957/10000 · 957
43 ../../exercises/ipv6.rst:471

	English In this network, we will focus on four IPv6 prefixes : 54/10000 · 54
43 ../../exercises/routing-protocols.rst:518

	English If you launch the script and immediately type ``ping6all`` to check the connectivity, you might obtained the following result. 126/10000 · 126
43 ../../exercises/tcp-2.rst:637

	English Open questions 14/10000 · 14
43 ../../protocols/bgp.rst:132

	English a list of IP prefixes that are (re-)advertised 46/10000 · 46

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