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43 ../../principles/sharing.rst:246
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — In datagram networks, `Forward Explicit Congestion Notification` (FECN) can be used. One field of the packet header, typically one bit, is used to indicate congestion. When a host sends a packet, the congestion bit is unset. If the packet passes through a congested node, the congestion bit is set. The destination can then determine the current congestion level by measuring the fraction of the packets that it received with the congestion bit set. It may then return this information to the sending host to allow it to adapt its retransmission rate. Compared to packet discarding, the main advantage of FECN is that hosts can detect congestion explicitly without having to rely on packet losses. 697/10000 · 697
43 ../../principles/transport.rst:108
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Besides 16 and 32 bit words, some applications need to exchange data structures containing bit fields of various lengths. For example, a message may be composed of a 16 bits field followed by eight, one bit flags, a 24 bits field and two 8 bits bytes. Internet protocol specifications will define such a message by using a representation such as the one below. In this representation, each line corresponds to 32 bits and the vertical lines are used to delineate fields. The numbers above the lines indicate the bit positions in the 32-bits word, with the high order bit at position `0`. 587/10000 · 587
43 ../../principles/security.rst:433
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — To efficiently sign messages, Alice needs to be able to compute a summary of her message in a way that makes prohibits an attacker from generating a different message that has the same summary. `Cryptographic hash functions` were designed to solve this problem. The ideal hash function is a function that returns a different number for every possible input. In practice, it is impossible to find such a function. Cryptographic hash functions are an approximation of this perfect summarization function. They compute a summary of a given message in 128, 160, 256 bits or more. They also exhibit the `avalanche effect`. This effect indicates that a small change in the message causes a large change in the hash value. Finally hash functions are very difficult to invert. Knowing a hash value, it is computationally very difficult to find the corresponding input message. Several hash functions have been proposed by cryptographers. The most popular ones are : 957/10000 · 957
43 ../../exercises/ipv6.rst:471
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — In this network, we will focus on four IPv6 prefixes : 54/10000 · 54
43 ../../exercises/routing-protocols.rst:518
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — If you launch the script and immediately type ``ping6all`` to check the connectivity, you might obtained the following result. 126/10000 · 126
43 ../../exercises/tcp-2.rst:637
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Open questions 14/10000 · 14
43 ../../protocols/bgp.rst:132
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — a list of IP prefixes that are (re-)advertised 46/10000 · 46
43 ../../protocols/congestion.rst:212
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — TCP connections that use a large MSS can achieve a higher throughput that the TCP connections that use a shorter MSS. This creates another source of unfairness between TCP connections. However, it should be noted that today most hosts are using almost the same MSS, roughly 1460 bytes. 285/10000 · 285
43 ../../protocols/email.rst:215
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — `video`. The message part contains a video clip. The subtype indicates the format of the video clip like `avi <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Video_Interleave>`_ or `mp4 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mp4>`_. 211/10000 · 211
43 ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:178
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Two multi-mode or single mode optical fibers with lasers 56/10000 · 56
43 ../../protocols/http.rst:165
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the `Date:` header indicates when the HTTP response has been produced by the server. 84/10000 · 84
43 ../../protocols/ipv6.rst:157
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — An `interface identifier` that identifies a particular interface on a host 74/10000 · 74
43 ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:171
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 10Base5 7/10000 · 7
43 ../../protocols/routing.rst:141
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Network operators expect an OSPF network to be able to quickly recover from link or router failures [VPD2004]_. In an OSPF network, the recovery after a failure is performed in three steps [FFEB2005]_ : 202/10000 · 202
43 ../../protocols/tcp.rst:135
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Establishment of a TCP connection 33/10000 · 33
43 ../../protocols/tls.rst:192
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the ``ServerHello`` message that contains the protocol version chosen by the server (assumed to be the same as the client version in this chapter), the 32 random bytes chosen by the server, the `Cipher Suite` selected by the server from the list advertised by the client and a `Session Id`. This `Session Id` is an identifier which is chosen by the server. It identifies the TLS session and the security parameters (algorithms and keys) negotiated for this session. It is used to support session resumption. 507/10000 · 507
43 ../../protocols/wifi.rst:109
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 802.11 control frames are simpler than data frames. They contain a `Frame Control`, a `Duration` field and one or two addresses. The acknowledgment frames are very small. They only contain the address of the destination of the acknowledgment. There is no source address and no `Sequence Control` field in the acknowledgment frames. This is because the acknowledgment frame can easily be associated to the previous frame that it acknowledges. Indeed, each unicast data frame contains a `Duration` field that is used to reserve the transmission channel to ensure that no collision will affect the acknowledgment frame. The `Sequence Control` field is mainly used by the receiver to remove duplicate frames. Duplicate frames are detected as follows. Each data frame contains a 12 bits sequence number in the `Sequence Control` field and the `Frame Control` field contains the `Retry` bit flag that is set when a frame is transmitted. Each 802.11 receiver stores the most recent sequence number received from each source address in frames whose `Retry` bit is reset. Upon reception of a frame with the `Retry` bit set, the receiver verifies its sequence number to determine whether it is a duplicated frame or not. 1211/10000 · 1211
43 ../../principles/network.rst:242
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — To understand the operation of the port-address table, let us consider the example network shown in the figure below. This network contains three hosts: `A`, `B` and `C` and five routers, `R1` to `R5`. When the network boots, all the forwarding tables of the nodes are empty. 275/10000 · 275
43 ../../bibliography.rst:60
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Dukkipati, N., Refice, T., Cheng, Y., Chu, J., Herbert, T., Agarwal, A., Jain, A., Sutin, N., `An Argument for Increasing TCP's Initial Congestion Window <https://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1823844.1823848>`_, ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communications Review, vol. 40 (2010), pp. 27-33 271/10000 · 271
44 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:333
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — send the least significant byte followed by the most significant byte 69/10000 · 69