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45 ../../protocols/tls.rst:212
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the ``ServerKeyExchange`` message is used by the server to transmit the information that is required to perform the key exchange. The content of this message is function of the selected key exchange algorithm. 209/10000 · 209
45 ../../protocols/wifi.rst:120
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 802.11 RTS/CTS frames are used to reserve the transmission channel, in order to transmit one data frame and its acknowledgment. The RTS frames contain a `Duration` and the transmitter and receiver addresses. The `Duration` field of the RTS frame indicates the duration of the entire reservation (i.e. the time required to transmit the CTS, the data frame, the acknowledgments and the required SIFS delays). The CTS frame has the same format as the acknowledgment frame. 469/10000 · 469
45 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:335
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The first possibility was named `big-endian` in a note written by Cohen [Cohen1980]_ while the second was named `little-endian`. Vendors of CPUs that used `big-endian` in memory insisted on using `big-endian` encoding in networked applications while vendors of CPUs that used `little-endian` recommended the opposite. Several studies were written on the relative merits of each type of encoding, but the discussion became almost a religious issue [Cohen1980]_. Eventually, the Internet chose the `big-endian` encoding, i.e. multi-byte fields are always transmitted by sending the most significant byte first, :rfc:`791` refers to this encoding as the :term:`network-byte order`. Most libraries [#fhtonl]_ used to write networked applications contain functions to convert multi-byte fields from memory to the network byte order and the reverse. 844/10000 · 844
45 ../../bibliography.rst:63
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Daemen, J., Rijmen, V., `The Design of Rijndael: AES – The Advanced Encryption Standard <http://www.springer.com/us/book/9783540425809>`_ Springer, 2002. ISBN 3-540-42580-2. 173/10000 · 173
45 ../../glossary.rst:219
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A wide area networking technology using virtual circuits that is deployed by telecom operators. 95/10000 · 95
45 ../../principles/sharing.rst:250
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — If the packet header does not contain any bit in the header to represent the current congestion level, an alternative is to allow the network nodes to send a control packet to the source to indicate the current congestion level. Some networking technologies use such control packets to explicitly regulate the transmission rate of sources. However, their usage is mainly restricted to small networks. In large networks, network nodes usually avoid using such control packets. These control packets are even considered to be dangerous in some networks. First, using them increases the network load when the network is congested. Second, while network nodes are optimized to forward packets, they are usually pretty slow at creating new packets. 743/10000 · 743
46 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:337
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Besides 16 and 32 bit words, some applications need to exchange data structures containing bit fields of various lengths. For example, a message may be composed of a 16 bits field followed by eight, one bit flags, a 24 bits field and two 8 bits bytes. Internet protocol specifications will define such a message by using a representation such as the one below. In this representation, each line corresponds to 32 bits and the vertical lines are used to delineate fields. The numbers above the lines indicate the bit positions in the 32-bits word, with the high order bit at position `0`. 587/10000 · 587
46 ../../bibliography.rst:65
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Davik, F. Yilmaz, M. Gjessing, S. Uzun, N., `IEEE 802.17 resilient packet ring tutorial <https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MCOM.2004.1273782>`_, IEEE Communications Magazine, Mar 2004, Vol 42, N 3, p. 112-118 204/10000 · 204
46 ../../exercises/network.rst:369
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Routes on E 11/10000 · 11
46 ../../glossary.rst:99
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — ftp 3/10000 · 3
46 ../../principles/reliability.rst:213
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The `framing` problem can be defined as : "`How does a sender encode frames so that the receiver can efficiently extract them from the stream of bits that it receives from the physical layer`". 193/10000 · 193
46 ../../principles/sharing.rst:254
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Dropping and marking packets is not the only possible reaction of a router that becomes congested. A router could also selectively delay packets belonging to some flows. There are different algorithms that can be used by a router to delay packets. If the objective of the router is to fairly distribute to bandwidth of an output link among competing flows, one possibility is to organize the buffers of the router as a set of queues. For simplicity, let us assume that the router is capable of supporting a fixed number of concurrent flows, say `N`. One of the queues of the router is associated to each flow and when a packet arrives, it is placed at the tail of the corresponding queue. All the queues are controlled by a `scheduler`. A `scheduler` is an algorithm that is run each time there is an opportunity to transmit a packet on the outgoing link. Various schedulers have been proposed in the scientific literature and some are used in real routers. 957/10000 · 957
46 ../../principles/transport.rst:120
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The peer-to-peer model emerged during the last ten years as another possible architecture for networked applications. In the traditional client-server model, hosts act either as servers or as clients and a server serves a large number of clients. In the peer-to-peer model, all hosts act as both servers and clients and they play both roles. The peer-to-peer model has been used to develop various networked applications, ranging from Internet telephony to file sharing or Internet-wide filesystems. A detailed description of peer-to-peer applications may be found in [BYL2008]_. Surveys of peer-to-peer protocols and applications may be found in [AS2004]_ and [LCP2005]_. 672/10000 · 672
46 ../../principles/security.rst:453
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — SHA-2 is another family of cryptographic hash functions designed by the NIST. Different variants of SHA-2 can produce has values of 224, 256, 384 or 512 bits. 158/10000 · 158
46 ../../exercises/ipv6.rst:475
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — ``p:0002::/64`` used on the link ``B1-R5``. ``B1`` uses address ``p:0002::B1/64`` 81/10000 · 81
46 ../../exercises/routing-protocols.rst:542
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — We have configured the following addresses on the hosts. 56/10000 · 56
46 ../../exercises/tcp-2.rst:642
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the round-trip-time is fixed and does not change during the lifetime of the TCP connection. We assume a fixed value of 100 milliseconds for the round-trip-time and a fixed value of 200 milliseconds for the retransmission timer. 227/10000 · 227
46 ../../protocols/bgp.rst:137
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — `Withdraw message` to indicate a BGP `UPDATE` message containing one route that is withdrawn 92/10000 · 92
46 ../../protocols/congestion.rst:219
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The TCP congestion control zoo 30/10000 · 30
46 ../../protocols/email.rst:220
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The first computers used different techniques to represent characters in memory and on disk. During the 1960s, computers began to exchange information via tape or telephone lines. Unfortunately, each vendor had its own proprietary character set and exchanging data between computers from different vendors was often difficult. The 7 bits ASCII character table :rfc:`20` was adopted by several vendors and by many Internet protocols. However, ASCII became a problem with the internationalization of the Internet and the desire of more and more users to use character sets that support their own written language. A first attempt at solving this problem was the definition of the ISO-8859_ character sets by :term:`ISO`. This family of standards specified various character sets that allowed the representation of many European written languages by using 8 bits characters. Unfortunately, an 8-bits character set is not sufficient to support some widely used languages, such as those used in Asian countries. Fortunately, at the end of the 1980s, several computer scientists proposed to develop a standard that supports all written languages used on Earth today. The Unicode standard [Unicode]_ has now been adopted by most computer and software vendors. For example, Java always uses Unicode to manipulate characters, Python can handle both ASCII and Unicode characters. Internet applications are slowly moving towards complete support for the Unicode character sets, but moving from ASCII to Unicode is an important change that can have a huge impact on current deployed implementations. See, for example, the work to completely internationalize email :rfc:`4952` and domain names :rfc:`5890`. 1693/10000 · 1693