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48 ../../protocols/bgp.rst:143
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — From a conceptual point of view, a BGP router connected to `N` BGP peers, can be described as being composed of four parts as shown in the figure below. 152/10000 · 152
48 ../../protocols/congestion.rst:223
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — `NewReno` (:rfc:`3782`), which was proposed as an improvement of the fast recovery mechanism in the `Reno` implementation. 122/10000 · 122
48 ../../protocols/email.rst:227
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — `Base64` divides the sequence of bytes to be encoded into groups of three bytes (with the last group possibly being partially filled). Each group of three bytes is then divided into four six-bit fields and each six bit field is encoded as a character from the table below. 272/10000 · 272
48 ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:192 • ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:308
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Footnotes 9/10000 · 9
48 ../../protocols/http.rst:172
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the `Referrer:` header is followed by a URI. It indicates the URI of the document that the client visited before sending this HTTP request. Thanks to this header, the server can know the URI of the document containing the hyperlink followed by the client, if any. This information is very useful to measure the impact of advertisements containing hyperlinks placed on websites. 377/10000 · 377
48 ../../protocols/ipv6.rst:166
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — To preserve the scalability of the routing system, it is important to minimize the number of routes that are stored on each router. A router cannot store and maintain one route for each of the almost 1 billion hosts that are connected to today's Internet. Routers should only maintain routes towards blocks of addresses and not towards individual hosts. For this, hosts are grouped in `subnets` based on their location in the network. A typical subnet groups all the hosts that are part of the same enterprise. An enterprise network is usually composed of several LANs interconnected by routers. A small block of addresses from the Enterprise's block is usually assigned to each LAN. 683/10000 · 683
48 ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:173
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Two pairs of category 3+ UTP 28/10000 · 28
48 ../../protocols/routing.rst:150
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A first approach is to select one of the equal cost paths (e.g. the first or the last path found by the SPF computation) and install it in the forwarding table. In this case, only one path is used to reach each destination. 223/10000 · 223
48 ../../protocols/tcp.rst:151
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A server could, of course, refuse to open a TCP connection upon reception of a `SYN` segment. This refusal may be due to various reasons. There may be no server process that is listening on the destination port of the `SYN` segment. The server could always refuse connection establishments from this particular client (e.g. due to security reasons) or the server may not have enough resources to accept a new TCP connection at that time. In this case, the server would reply with a TCP segment having its `RST` flag set and containing the `sequence number` of the received `SYN` segment incremented by one as its `acknowledgment number`. This is illustrated in the figure below. We discuss the other usages of the TCP `RST` flag later (see :ref:`TCPRelease`). 759/10000 · 759
48 ../../protocols/tls.rst:225
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — ``RSA``. This key exchange algorithm uses the encryption capabilities of the RSA public-key algorithm. The client has validated the server's public key thanks to the ``Certificate`` message. It then generates a (48 bytes) random number, encrypts it with the server public key and sends the encrypted number to the server in the ``ClientKeyExchange`` message. The server uses its private key to decrypt the random number. At this point, the client and the server share the same (48 bytes long) secret and use it to derive the secret keys required to encrypt and authenticate data in the second phase. With this key exchange algorithm, the server does not need to send a ``ServerKeyExchange`` message. 699/10000 · 699
48 ../../protocols/wifi.rst:131
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Despite the utilization of acknowledgments, the 802.11 layer only provides an unreliable connectionless service like Ethernet networks that do not use acknowledgments. The 802.11 acknowledgments are used to minimize the probability of frame duplication. They do not guarantee that all frames will be correctly received by their recipients. Like Ethernet, 802.11 networks provide a high probability of successful delivery of the frames, not a guarantee. Furthermore, it should be noted that 802.11 networks do not use acknowledgments for multicast and broadcast frames. This implies that in practice such frames are more likely to suffer from transmission errors than unicast frames. 682/10000 · 682
48 ../../principles/transport.rst:126
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A network is always designed and built to enable applications running on hosts to exchange information. In a previous chapter, we have explained the principles of the `network layer` that enables hosts connected to different types of datalink layers to exchange information through routers. These routers act as relays in the network layer and ensure the delivery of packets between any pair of hosts attached to the network. 425/10000 · 425
49 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:348
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Exercises 9/10000 · 9
49 ../../exercises/network.rst:372
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 1 via A 7/10000 · 7
49 ../../glossary.rst:192
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The File Transfer Protocol is defined in :rfc:`959` 51/10000 · 51
49 ../../principles/network.rst:303
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the `control packets` 21/10000 · 21
49 ../../principles/reliability.rst:219
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Bit rate and bandwidth are often used to characterize the transmission capacity of the physical service. The original definition of `bandwidth <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bandwidth>`_, as listed in the `Webster dictionary <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary>`_ is `a range of radio frequencies which is occupied by a modulated carrier wave, which is assigned to a service, or over which a device can operate`. This definition corresponds to the characteristics of a given transmission medium or receiver. For example, the human ear is able to decode sounds in roughly the 0-20 KHz frequency range. By extension, bandwidth is also used to represent the capacity of a communication system in bits per second. For example, a Gigabit Ethernet link is theoretically capable of transporting one billion bits per second. 837/10000 · 837
49 ../../principles/transport.rst:130
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The network layer ensures the delivery of packets on a hop-by-hop basis through intermediate nodes. As such, it provides a service to the upper layer. In practice, this layer is usually the `transport layer` that improves the service provided by the `network layer` to make it usable by applications. 300/10000 · 300
49 ../../principles/security.rst:471
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — We can now combine the cryptographic operations described in the previous section to build some protocols to securely exchange information. Let us first go back to the problem of authenticating Alice on Bob's computer. We have shown earlier that using a simple password for this purpose is insecure in the presence of attackers. 328/10000 · 328
49 ../../exercises/ipv6.rst:480
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — All packets sent by ``B1`` and ``B2`` to ``A1`` and ``A2`` are always forwarded via ``R2`` while all packets from ``A1`` and ``A2`` are always forwarded via ``R4`` 163/10000 · 163