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48 ../../protocols/wifi.rst:131
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Despite the utilization of acknowledgments, the 802.11 layer only provides an unreliable connectionless service like Ethernet networks that do not use acknowledgments. The 802.11 acknowledgments are used to minimize the probability of frame duplication. They do not guarantee that all frames will be correctly received by their recipients. Like Ethernet, 802.11 networks provide a high probability of successful delivery of the frames, not a guarantee. Furthermore, it should be noted that 802.11 networks do not use acknowledgments for multicast and broadcast frames. This implies that in practice such frames are more likely to suffer from transmission errors than unicast frames. 682/10000 · 682
48 ../../principles/transport.rst:126
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A network is always designed and built to enable applications running on hosts to exchange information. In a previous chapter, we have explained the principles of the `network layer` that enables hosts connected to different types of datalink layers to exchange information through routers. These routers act as relays in the network layer and ensure the delivery of packets between any pair of hosts attached to the network. 425/10000 · 425
49 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:348
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Exercises 9/10000 · 9
49 ../../exercises/network.rst:372
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 1 via A 7/10000 · 7
49 ../../glossary.rst:192
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The File Transfer Protocol is defined in :rfc:`959` 51/10000 · 51
49 ../../principles/network.rst:303
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the `control packets` 21/10000 · 21
49 ../../principles/reliability.rst:219
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Bit rate and bandwidth are often used to characterize the transmission capacity of the physical service. The original definition of `bandwidth <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bandwidth>`_, as listed in the `Webster dictionary <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary>`_ is `a range of radio frequencies which is occupied by a modulated carrier wave, which is assigned to a service, or over which a device can operate`. This definition corresponds to the characteristics of a given transmission medium or receiver. For example, the human ear is able to decode sounds in roughly the 0-20 KHz frequency range. By extension, bandwidth is also used to represent the capacity of a communication system in bits per second. For example, a Gigabit Ethernet link is theoretically capable of transporting one billion bits per second. 837/10000 · 837
49 ../../principles/transport.rst:130
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The network layer ensures the delivery of packets on a hop-by-hop basis through intermediate nodes. As such, it provides a service to the upper layer. In practice, this layer is usually the `transport layer` that improves the service provided by the `network layer` to make it usable by applications. 300/10000 · 300
49 ../../principles/security.rst:471
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — We can now combine the cryptographic operations described in the previous section to build some protocols to securely exchange information. Let us first go back to the problem of authenticating Alice on Bob's computer. We have shown earlier that using a simple password for this purpose is insecure in the presence of attackers. 328/10000 · 328
49 ../../exercises/ipv6.rst:480
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — All packets sent by ``B1`` and ``B2`` to ``A1`` and ``A2`` are always forwarded via ``R2`` while all packets from ``A1`` and ``A2`` are always forwarded via ``R4`` 163/10000 · 163
49 ../../exercises/routing-protocols.rst:581
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The same applies for the paths between ``h1`` and ``h2`` 56/10000 · 56
49 ../../exercises/tcp-2.rst:645
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the initial value of the congestion window is one MSS-sized segment 67/10000 · 67
49 ../../protocols/bgp.rst:151
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Organization of a BGP router 28/10000 · 28
49 ../../protocols/congestion.rst:224
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — `TCP Vegas`, which uses changes in the round-trip-time to estimate congestion in order to avoid it [BOP1994]_. This is one of the examples of the delay-based congestion control algorithms. A Vegas sender continuously measures the evolution of the round-trip-time and slows down when the round-trip-time increases significantly. This enables Vegas to prevent congestion when used alone. Unfortunately, if Vegas senders compete with more aggressive TCP congestion control schemes that only react to losses, Vegas senders may have difficulties to user their fair share of the available bandwidth. 593/10000 · 593
49 ../../protocols/email.rst:230 • ../../protocols/email.rst:230 • ../../protocols/email.rst:230 • ../../protocols/email.rst:230
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Value 5/10000 · 5
49 ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:193
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Additional information about the history of the Ethernet technology may be found at http://ethernethistory.typepad.com/ 119/10000 · 119
49 ../../protocols/http.rst:173
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the `Host:` header contains the fully qualified domain name of the URI being requested. 87/10000 · 87
49 ../../protocols/ipv6.rst:168
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — In today's deployments, interface identifiers are always 64 bits wide. This implies that while there are :math:`2^{128}` different IPv6 addresses, they must be grouped in :math:`2^{64}` subnets. This could appear as a waste of resources, however using 64 bits for the host identifier allows IPv6 addresses to be auto-configured and also provides some benefits from a security point of view, as explained in section ICMPv6_. 423/10000 · 423
49 ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:174
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 10Base-F 8/10000 · 8
49 ../../protocols/routing.rst:152
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A second approach is to install all equal cost paths [#fmaxpaths]_ in the forwarding table and load-balance the packets on the different paths. Consider the case where a router has `N` different outgoing interfaces to reach destination `d`. A first possibility to load-balance the traffic among these interfaces is to use `round-robin`. `Round-robin` allows equally balancing the packets among the `N` outgoing interfaces. This equal load-balancing is important in practice because it allows better spreading the load throughout the network. However, few networks use this `round-robin` strategy to load-balance traffic on routers. The main drawback of `round-robin` is that packets that belong to the same flow (e.g. TCP connection) may be forwarded over different paths. If packets belonging to the same TCP connection are sent over different paths, they will probably experience different delays and arrive out-of-sequence at their destination. When a TCP receiver detects out-of-order segments, it sends duplicate acknowledgments that may cause the sender to initiate a fast retransmission and enter congestion avoidance. Thus, out-of-order segments may lead to lower TCP performance. This is annoying for a load-balancing technique whose objective is to improve the network performance by spreading the load. 1313/10000 · 1313