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12 ../../protocols/http.rst:53
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Open standards and open implementations 39/10000 · 39
12 ../../protocols/http2.rst:68
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Evolution of the size of the web pages (source: https://httparchive.org/reports/page-weight) 92/10000 · 92
12 ../../protocols/ipv6.rst:87
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — However, in parallel with these short-term solutions, which have allowed the IPv4 Internet to continue to be usable until now, the Internet Engineering Task Force started working on developing a replacement for IPv4. This work started with an open call for proposals, outlined in :rfc:`1550`. Several groups responded to this call with proposals for a next generation Internet Protocol (IPng) : 394/10000 · 394
12 ../../protocols/ppp.rst:31
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — PPP played a key role in allowing Internet Service Providers to provide dial-up access over modems in the late 1990s and early 2000s. ISPs operated modem banks connected to the telephone network. For these ISPs, a key issue was to authenticate each user connected through the telephone network. This authentication was performed by using the `Extensible Authentication Protocol` (EAP) defined in :rfc:`3748`. EAP is a simple, but extensible protocol that was initially used by access routers to authenticate the users connected through dial-up lines. Several authentication methods, starting from the simple username/password pairs to more complex schemes have been defined and implemented. When ISPs started to upgrade their physical infrastructure to provide Internet access over `Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines` (ADSL), they tried to reuse their existing authentication (and billing) systems. To meet these requirements, the IETF developed specifications to allow PPP frames to be transported over other networks than the point-to-point links for which PPP was designed. Nowadays, most ADSL deployments use PPP over either ATM :rfc:`2364` or Ethernet :rfc:`2516`. 1171/10000 · 1171
12 ../../protocols/ppp.rst:35
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — `LAPB <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LAPB>`_ and `HDLC <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDLC>`_ were widely used datalink layer protocols. 134/10000 · 134
12 ../../protocols/routing.rst:38
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is the simplest routing protocol that was standardized for the TCP/IP protocol suite. RIP is defined in :rfc:`2453`. Additional information about RIP may be found in [Malkin1999]_. 219/10000 · 219
12 ../../protocols/rpc.rst:27
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The encoding problem exists in a wide range of applications. In the previous sections, we have described how character-based encodings are used by email and HTTP. Although standard encoding techniques such as ASN.1 [Dubuisson2000]_ have been defined to cover most application needs, many applications have defined their specific encoding. `Remote Procedure Call` are no exception to this rule. The three most popular encoding methods are probably XDR :rfc:`1832` used by ONC-RPC :rfc:`1831`, XML, used by XML-RPC and JSON :rfc:`4627`. 534/10000 · 534
12 ../../protocols/ssh.rst:87
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — compression 11/10000 · 11
12 ../../protocols/tcp.rst:35
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A TCP header contains the following fields : 44/10000 · 44
12 ../../protocols/tls.rst:44
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — IMAP 4/10000 · 4
12 ../../protocols/transport-service.rst:25
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — IPv4 addresses are usually represented by using a dotted decimal representation where each decimal number corresponds to one byte of the address, e.g. `203.0.113.56`. IPv6 addresses are usually represented as a set of hexadecimal numbers separated by semicolons, e.g. `2001:db8:3080:2:217:f2ff:fed6:65c0`. Today, most Internet hosts have one IPv4 address. A small fraction of them also have an IPv6 address. In the future, we can expect that more and more hosts will have IPv6 addresses and that some of them will not have an IPv4 address anymore. A host that only has an IPv4 address cannot communicate with a host having only an IPv6 address. The figure below illustrates two applications that are using the datagram service provided by UDP on hosts that are using IPv4 addresses. 782/10000 · 782
12 ../../protocols/udp.rst:54
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — a 16 bits destination port 26/10000 · 26
12 ../../protocols/wifi.rst:22 • ../../protocols/wifi.rst:24 • ../../protocols/wifi.rst:25
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 2.4 GHz 7/10000 · 7
12 ../../principles/network.rst:86
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The network layer enables the transmission of information between hosts that are not directly connected through intermediate routers. This transmission is carried out by putting the information to be transmitted inside a data structure which is called a `packet`. As a frame that contains useful data and control information, a packet also contains both data supplied by the user and control information. An important issue in the network layer is the ability to identify a node (host or router) inside the network. This identification is performed by associating an address to each node. An :term:`address` is usually represented as a sequence of bits. Most networks use fixed-length addresses. At this stage, let us simply assume that each of the nodes in the above network has an address which corresponds to the binary representation of its name on the figure. 864/10000 · 864
13 ../../exercises/ex-sharing.rst:260
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — CSMA/CD does not use acknowledgments but instead assumes that each host can detect collisions by listening while transmitting. Consider a 2 kilometers long cable running at 10 Mbps. Show in the figure below the utilization of the communication channel and the collisions that would occur. For this exercise, do not attempt to retransmit the frames that have collided. 367/10000 · 367
13 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:118
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The first argument is the file descriptor of the socket that we use to perform the communication. ``buf`` is a buffer of length ``len`` containing the bytes to send to the peer. The usage of ``flags`` argument is out of the scope of this section and can be set to 0. ``dest_addr`` is the socket address of the destination to which we want to send the bytes, its length is passed using the ``addrlen`` argument. 410/10000 · 410
13 ../../principles/naming.rst:77
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Some visually similar characters have different character codes 63/10000 · 63
13 ../../principles/network.rst:88
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — To send one byte of information to host `B`, host `A` needs to place this information inside a `packet`. In addition to the data being transmitted, the packet also contains either the addresses of the source and the destination nodes or information that indicates the path that needs to be followed to reach the destination. 324/10000 · 324
13 ../../principles/referencemodels.rst:74
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The `Datalink layer` builds on the service provided by the underlying physical layer. The `Datalink layer` allows two hosts that are directly connected through the physical layer to exchange information. The unit of information exchanged between two entities in the `Datalink layer` is a frame. A frame is a finite sequence of bits. Some `Datalink layers` use variable-length frames while others only use fixed-length frames. Some `Datalink layers` provide a connection-oriented service while others provide a connectionless service. Some `Datalink layers` provide reliable delivery while others do not guarantee the correct delivery of the information. 653/10000 · 653
13 ../../principles/reliability.rst:51
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 1 Kbps 6/10000 · 6