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13 ../../protocols/transport-service.rst:47
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Textual representation of IPv6 addresses 40/10000 · 40
13 ../../protocols/udp.rst:55
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — a 16 bits length field 22/10000 · 22
13 ../../protocols/wifi.rst:22
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 0.9 Mbps 8/10000 · 8
13 ../../protocols/dns.rst:49
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — In a `Resource Record` (`RR`), the `Name` indicates the name of the node to which this resource record pertains. The two-)bytes `Type` field indicates the type of resource record. The `Class` field was used to support the utilization of the DNS in other environments than the Internet. The `IN` `Class` refers to Internet names. 328/10000 · 328
13 ../../bibliography.rst:19
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Labovitz, C., Iekel-Johnson, S., McPherson, D., Oberheide, J. and Jahanian, F., `Internet inter-domain traffic <http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1851182.1851194>`_. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM 2010 conference on SIGCOMM (SIGCOMM '10). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 75-86. 265/10000 · 265
13 ../../principles/sharing.rst:117
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Sharing resources is important to ensure that the network efficiently serves its user. In practice, there are many ways to share resources. Some resource sharing schemes consider that some users are more important than others and should obtain more resources. For example, on the roads, police cars and ambulances have priority. In some cities, traffic lanes are reserved for buses to promote public services, ... In computer networks, the same problem arise. Given that resources are limited, the network needs to enable users to efficiently share them. Before designing an efficient resource sharing scheme, one needs to first formalize its objectives. In computer networks, the most popular objective for resource sharing schemes is that they must be `fair`. In a simple situation, for example two hosts using a shared 2 Mbps link, the sharing scheme should allocate the same bandwidth to each user, in this case 1 Mbps. However, in a large networks, simply dividing the available resources by the number of users is not sufficient. Consider the network shown in the figure below where `A1` sends data to `A2`, `B1` to `B2`, ... In this network, how should we divide the bandwidth among the different flows ? A first approach would be to allocate the same bandwidth to each flow. In this case, each flow would obtain 5 Mbps and the link between `R2` and `R3` would not be fully loaded. Another approach would be to allocate 10 Mbps to `A1-A2`, 20 Mbps to `C1-C2` and nothing to `B1-B2`. This is clearly unfair. 1513/10000 · 1513
14 ../../exercises/ex-sharing.rst:290
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Consider again a network that uses CSMA/CD. This time, the bandwidth is set to 1 Gbps and the cable has a length of two kilometers. When a collision occurs, consider that the hosts B and C retransmit immediately while host A waits for the next slot. 249/10000 · 249
14 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:120
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — In the following example, a C program is sending the bytes ``'h'``, ``'e'``, ``'l'``, ``'l'`` and ``'o'`` to a remote process located at address ``peer_addr``, using the already created socket ``sock``. 202/10000 · 202
14 ../../principles/naming.rst:79
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The Domain Name System was created at a time when the Internet was mainly used in North America. The initial design assumed that all domain names would be composed of letters and digits :rfc:`1035`. As Internet usage grew in other parts of the world, it became important to support non-ASCII characters. For this, extensions have been proposed to the Domain Name System :rfc:`3490`. In a nutshell, the solution that is used to support Internationalized Domain Names works as follows. First, it is possible to use most of the Unicode characters to encode domain names and hostnames, with a few exceptions (for example, the dot character cannot be part of a name since it is used as a separator). Once a domain name has been encoded as a series of Unicode characters, it is then converted into a string that contains the ``xn--`` prefix and a sequence of ASCII characters. More details on these algorithms can be found in :rfc:`3490` and :rfc:`3492`. 948/10000 · 948
14 ../../principles/network.rst:90
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — There are two possible organizations for the network layer : 60/10000 · 60
14 ../../principles/referencemodels.rst:76
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — An important point to note about the `Datalink layer` is that although the figure below indicates that two entities of the `Datalink layer` exchange frames directly, in reality this is slightly different. When the `Datalink layer` entity on the left needs to transmit a frame, it issues as many `Data.request` primitives to the underlying `physical layer` as there are bits in the frame. The physical layer will then convert the sequence of bits in an electromagnetic or optical signal that will be sent over the physical medium. The `physical layer` on the right hand side of the figure will decode the received signal, recover the bits and issue the corresponding `Data.indication` primitives to its `Datalink layer` entity. If there are no transmission errors, this entity will receive the frame sent earlier. 812/10000 · 812
14 ../../principles/reliability.rst:51
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — :math:`10^3` 12/10000 · 12
14 ../../exercises/network.rst:108
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Is it possible to configure the link metrics so that the packets sent by the router located in `Los Angeles` to the routers located in respectively `New York` and `Washington` do not follow the same path ? 205/10000 · 205
14 ../../exercises/reliability.rst:31
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The bandwidth of the two directions of the link is set to `B` bits per second 77/10000 · 77
14 ../../exercises/transport.rst:128
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A network layer service guarantees that a packet will never live during more than 100 seconds inside the network. Consider a reliable connection-oriented transport protocol that places a 32 bits sequence number inside each segment. What is the maximum rate (in segments per second) at which is should sent data segments to prevent having two segments with the same sequence number inside the network ? 401/10000 · 401
14 ../../principles/sharing.rst:150
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — In large networks, fairness is always a compromise. The most widely used definition of fairness is the `max-min fairness`. A bandwidth allocation in a network is said to be `max-min fair` if it is such that it is impossible to allocate more bandwidth to one of the flows without reducing the bandwidth of a flow that already has a smaller allocation than the flow that we want to increase. If the network is completely known, it is possible to derive a `max-min fair` allocation as follows. Initially, all flows have a null bandwidth and they are placed in the candidate set. The bandwidth allocation of all flows in the candidate set is increased until one link becomes congested. At this point, the flows that use the congested link have reached their maximum allocation. They are removed from the candidate set and the process continues until the candidate set becomes empty. 878/10000 · 878
14 ../../principles/transport.rst:56
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Such a conversation succeeds if both Alice and Bob speak the same language. If Alice meets Tchang who only speaks Chinese, she won't be able to ask him the current time. A conversation between humans can be more complex. For example, assume that Bob is a security guard whose duty is to only allow trusted secret agents to enter a meeting room. If all agents know a secret password, the conversation between Bob and Trudy could be as follows : 443/10000 · 443
14 ../../protocols/dns.rst:51
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The `TTL` field indicates the lifetime of the `Resource Record` in seconds. This field is set by the server that returns an answer and indicates for how long a client or a resolver can store the `Resource Record` inside its cache. A long `TTL` indicates a stable `RR`. Some companies use short `TTL` values for mobile hosts and also for popular servers. For example, a web hosting company that wants to spread the load over a pool of hundred servers can configure its nameservers to return different answers to different clients. If each answer has a small `TTL`, the clients will be forced to send DNS queries regularly. The nameserver will reply to these queries by supplying the address of the less loaded server. 716/10000 · 716
14 ../../principles/security.rst:187
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The last type of attack that we consider in this introduction are the `Denial of Service` or DoS attacks. During such an attack, the attacker generates enough packets to saturate a given service and prevent it from operating correctly. The simplest Denial of Service attack is to send more packets that the bandwidth of the link that attaches the target to the network. The target could be a single server, a company or even an entire country. If these packets all come from the same source, then the victim can identify the attacker and contact the law enforcement authorities. In practice, such denial of service attacks do not originate from a single source. The attacker usually compromises a (possibly very large) set of sources and forces them to send packets to saturate a given target. Since the attacking traffic comes from a wide range of sources, it is difficult for the victim to locate the culprit and also to counter the attack. Saturating a link is the simplest example of `Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)` attacks. 1035/10000 · 1035
14 ../../exercises/dns.rst:45
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — What is the IPv6 address that corresponds to `www.computer-networking.info` ? Which type of DNS query does `dig` send to obtain this information ? 146/10000 · 146