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20 ../../exercises/trace.rst:109
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — When analyzing packet traces with wireshark_, it is often very useful to use `Display filters` that only show the packets that match some specific criteria. There filters are described in several online documents: 213/10000 · 213
20 ../../protocols/bgp.rst:68
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — From a routing perspective, over a `shared-cost` peering relationship a domain only advertises its internal routes/prefixes and the routes that it has learned from its customers. This restriction ensures that only packets destined to the local domain or one of its customers is received over the `shared-cost` peering relationship. This implies that the routes that have been learned from a provider or from another `shared-cost` peer is not advertised over a `shared-cost` peering relationship. This is motivated by economical reasons. If a domain were to advertise the routes that it learned from a provider over a `shared-cost` peering relationship that does not bring revenue, it would have allowed its `shared-cost` peer to use the link with its provider without any payment. If a domain were to advertise the routes it learned over a `shared cost` peering over another `shared-cost` peering relationship, it would have allowed these `shared-cost` peers to use its own network (which may span one or more continents) freely to exchange packets. 1049/10000 · 1049
20 ../../protocols/congestion.rst:108
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The first difficulty in adding Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) in TCP/IP network was to modify the format of the network packet and transport segment headers to carry the required information. In the network layer, one bit was required to allow the routers to mark the packets they forward during congestion periods. In the IP network layer, this bit is called the `Congestion Experienced` (`CE`) bit and is part of the packet header. However, using a single bit to mark packets is not sufficient. Consider a simple scenario with two sources, one congested router and one destination. Assume that the first sender and the destination support ECN, but not the second sender. If the router is congested it will mark packets from both senders. The first sender will react to the packet markings by reducing its transmission rate. However since the second sender does not support ECN, it will not react to the markings. Furthermore, this sender could continue to increase its transmission rate, which would lead to more packets being marked and the first source would decrease again its transmission rate, ... In the end, the sources that implement ECN are penalized compared to the sources that do not implement it. This unfairness issue is a major hurdle to widely deploy ECN on the public Internet [#fprivate]_. The solution proposed in :rfc:`3168` to deal with this problem is to use a second bit in the network packet header. This bit, called the `ECN-capable transport` (ECT) bit, indicates whether the packet contains a segment produced by a transport protocol that supports ECN or not. Transport protocols that support ECN set the ECT bit in all packets. When a router is congested, it first verifies whether the ECT bit is set. In this case, the CE bit of the packet is set to indicate congestion. Otherwise, the packet is discarded. This eases the deployment of ECN [#fecnnonce]_. 1893/10000 · 1893
20 ../../protocols/dnssec.rst:189
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — To obtain an authenticated record for `www.example.org`, Alice's resolver first needs to retrieve the `NS` which is responsible for the `.org` Top-Level Domain (TLD). This record is served by the DNS root server and Alice's resolver can retrieve the signature (`RRSIG` record) for this `NS` record. Since Alice knows the `DNSKEY` of the root, she can verify the validity of this signature. 389/10000 · 389
20 ../../protocols/email.rst:107
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the `bcc:` header line is used by the sender to provide a list of comma separated email addresses that must receive a blind carbon copy of the message. The `bcc:` header line is not delivered to the recipients of the email message. 231/10000 · 231
20 ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:113
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The second physical layer was 10Base2. This physical layer used a thin coaxial cable that was easier to install than the 10Base5 cable, but could not be longer than 185 meters. A 10BaseF physical layer was also defined to transport Ethernet over point-to-point optical links. The major change to the physical layer was the support of twisted pairs in the 10BaseT specification. Twisted pair cables are traditionally used to support the telephone service in office buildings. Most office buildings today are equipped with structured cabling. Several twisted pair cables are installed between any room and a central telecom closet per building or per floor in large buildings. These telecom closets act as concentration points for the telephone service but also for LANs. 769/10000 · 769
20 ../../protocols/http.rst:96
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A markup language is a structured way of adding annotations about the formatting of the document within the document itself. Example markup languages include troff_, which is used to write the Unix man pages or Latex_. HTML uses markers to annotate text and a document is composed of `HTML elements`. Each element is usually composed of three parts: a start tag that potentially includes some specific attributes, some text (often including other elements), and an end tag. A HTML tag is a keyword enclosed in angle brackets. The generic form of an HTML element is :: 567/10000 · 567
20 ../../protocols/http2.rst:144
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — To cope with these two problems, the IETF HTTP working group developed version 2.0 of HTTP. HTTP/2.0 diverges from HTTP/1.1 in two important ways. First, HTTP/2.0 relies on binary encoding which is both more compact and easier to parse. Second, HTTP/2.0 supports multiple streams, which makes it possible to simultaneously transfer different web objects over a single transport connection. Furthermore, HTTP/2.0 also compresses the HTTP headers to reduce the amount of data transferred. This technique is described in :rfc:`7541` but is not discussed in this chapter. 567/10000 · 567
20 ../../protocols/ipv6.rst:98
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Security must be part of IPv6 29/10000 · 29
20 ../../protocols/ethernet.rst:47
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The original 10 Mbps Ethernet specification [DIX]_ defined a simple frame format where each frame is composed of five fields. The Ethernet frame starts with a preamble (not shown in the figure below) that is used by the physical layer of the receiver to synchronize its clock with the sender's clock. The first field of the frame is the destination address. As this address is placed at the beginning of the frame, an Ethernet interface can quickly verify whether it is the frame recipient and if not, cancel the processing of the arriving frame. The second field is the source address. While the destination address can be either a unicast or a multicast/broadcast address, the source address must always be a unicast address. The third field is a 16 bits integer that indicates which type of network layer packet is carried inside the frame. This field is often called the `EtherType`. Frequently used `EtherType` values [#fethertype]_ include `0x0800` for IPv4, `0x86DD` for IPv6 [#fipv6ether]_ and `0x806` for the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). 1052/10000 · 1052
20 ../../protocols/routing.rst:67
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Link-state routing protocols are used in IP networks. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), defined in :rfc:`2328`, is the link state routing protocol that has been standardized by the IETF. The last version of OSPF, which supports IPv6, is defined in :rfc:`5340`. OSPF is frequently used in enterprise networks and in some ISP networks. However, ISP networks often use the IS-IS link-state routing protocol [ISO10589]_ , which was developed for the ISO CLNP protocol but was adapted to be used in IP :rfc:`1195` networks before the finalization of the standardization of OSPF. A detailed analysis of ISIS and OSPF may be found in [BMO2006]_ and [Perlman2000]_. Additional information about OSPF may be found in [Moy1998]_. 719/10000 · 719
20 ../../protocols/rpc.rst:86
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — This object has one field named `Image`. It has five attributes. The first one, `Width`, is an integer set to 800. The third one is a string. The fourth attribute, `Thumbnail` is also an object composed of three different attributes, one string and two integers. JSON can also be used to encode arrays or lists. In this case, square brackets are used as delimiters. The snippet below shows an array which contains the prime integers that are smaller than ten. 459/10000 · 459
20 ../../protocols/ssh.rst:173
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The second point is that the server authenticates not only the result of the Diffie Hellman exchange but also a hash of all the information sent and received during the exchange. This is important to prevent `downgrade attacks`. A `downgrade attack` is an attack where an active attacker modifies the messages sent by the communicating hosts (typically the client) to request the utilization of weaker encryption algorithms. Consider a client that supports two encryption schemes. The preferred one uses 128 bits secret keys and the second one is an old encryption scheme that uses 48 bits keys. This second algorithm is kept for backward compatibility with older implementations. If an attacker can remove the preferred algorithm from the list of encryption algorithms supported by the client, he can force the server to use a weaker encryption scheme that will be easier to break. Thanks to the hash that covers all the messages exchanged by the server, the downgrade attack cannot occur against ``ssh``. Algorithm agility is a key requirement for security protocols that need to evolve when encryption algorithms are broken by researchers. This agility cannot be used without care and signing a hash of all the messages exchanged is a technique that is frequently used to prevent downgrade attacks. 1301/10000 · 1301
20 ../../protocols/tcp.rst:46
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the flags field contains a set of bit flags that indicate how a segment should be interpreted by the TCP entity receiving it : 126/10000 · 126
20 ../../protocols/tls.rst:46
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 443 3/10000 · 3
20 ../../protocols/transport-service.rst:59
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — `ff01:0:0:0:0:0:0:101` is represented as `ff01::101` 54/10000 · 54
20 ../../protocols/udp.rst:69
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Computation of the UDP checksum 31/10000 · 31
20 ../../protocols/wifi.rst:23
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — 35/120 6/10000 · 6
20 ../../exercises/sockets.rst:175
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — While the provided examples show the usage of a `char` array as the data buffer, implementers should **never** assume that it contains a string. C programs rely on the `char` type to refer to a 8-bit long value, and arbitrary binary values can be exchanged over the network (i.e., the ``\0`` value does not delimit the end of the data). 336/10000 · 336
20 ../../principles/sharing.rst:186
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — If `R1` has enough buffers, it will be able to absorb the load without having to discard packets. The packets sent by hosts `A` and `B` will reach their final destination `C`, but will experience a longer delay than when they are transmitting alone. The amount of buffering on the network node is the first parameter that a network operator can tune to control congestion inside his network. Given the decreasing cost of memory, one could be tempted to put as many buffers [#fbufferbloat]_ as possible on the network nodes. Let us consider this case in the network above and assume that `R1` has infinite buffers. Assume now that hosts `A` and `B` try to transmit a file that corresponds to one thousand packets each. Both are using a reliable protocol that relies on go-back-n to recover from transmission errors. The transmission starts and packets start to accumulate in `R1`'s buffers. The presence of these packets in the buffers increases the delay between the transmission of a packet by `A` and the return of the corresponding acknowledgment. Given the increasing delay, host `A` (and `B` as well) will consider that some of the packets that it sent have been lost. These packets will be retransmitted and will enter the buffers of `R1`. The occupancy of the buffers of `R1` will continue to increase and the delays as well. This will cause new retransmissions, ... In the end, only one file will be delivered (very slowly) to the destination, but the link `R1-R2` will transfer much more bytes than the size of the file due to the multiple copies of the same packets. This is known as the `congestion collapse` problem :rfc:`896`. Congestion collapse is the nightmare for network operators. When it happens, the network carries packets without delivering useful data to the end users. 1793/10000 · 1793