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../../protocols/bgp.rst:19
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The stub domains can be further classified by considering whether they mainly send or receive packets. An `access-rich` stub domain is a domain that contains hosts that mainly receive packets. Typical examples include small ADSL- or cable modem-based Internet Service Providers or enterprise networks. On the other hand, a `content-rich` stub domain is a domain that mainly produces packets. Examples of `content-rich` stub domains include google_, yahoo_, microsoft_, facebook_ or content distribution networks such as akamai_ or limelight_. For the last few years, we have seen a rapid growth of these `content-rich` stub domains. Recent measurements [ATLAS2009]_ indicate that a growing fraction of all the packets exchanged on the Internet are produced in the data centers managed by these content providers.
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../../protocols/congestion.rst:19
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When a TCP connection begins, the sending host does not know whether the part of the network that it uses to reach the destination is congested or not. To avoid causing too much congestion, it must start with a small congestion window. [Jacobson1988]_ recommends an initial window of MSS bytes. As the additive increase part of the TCP congestion control scheme increments the congestion window by MSS bytes every round-trip-time, the TCP connection may have to wait many round-trip-times before being able to efficiently use the available bandwidth. This is especially important in environments where the :math:`bandwidth \times rtt` product is high. To avoid waiting too many round-trip-times before reaching a congestion window that is large enough to efficiently utilize the network, the TCP congestion control scheme includes the `slow-start` algorithm. The objective of the TCP `slow-start` phase is to quickly reach an acceptable value for the `cwnd`. During `slow-start`, the congestion window is doubled every round-trip-time. The `slow-start` algorithm uses an additional variable in the TCB : `ssthresh` (`slow-start threshold`). The `ssthresh` is an estimation of the last value of the `cwnd` that did not cause congestion. It is initialized at the sending window and is updated after each congestion event.
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../../protocols/dnssec.rst:41
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If Mallory cannot control a router on the path between Alice and her resolver, she could still launch a different attack. To understand this attack, it is important to correctly understand how the DNS protocol operates and the roles of the different fields of the DNS header which is reproduced in the figure below.
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../../protocols/email.rst:49
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a message format, that defines how valid email messages are encoded
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../../protocols/ethernet.rst:47
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The original 10 Mbps Ethernet specification [DIX]_ defined a simple frame format where each frame is composed of five fields. The Ethernet frame starts with a preamble (not shown in the figure below) that is used by the physical layer of the receiver to synchronize its clock with the sender's clock. The first field of the frame is the destination address. As this address is placed at the beginning of the frame, an Ethernet interface can quickly verify whether it is the frame recipient and if not, cancel the processing of the arriving frame. The second field is the source address. While the destination address can be either a unicast or a multicast/broadcast address, the source address must always be a unicast address. The third field is a 16 bits integer that indicates which type of network layer packet is carried inside the frame. This field is often called the `EtherType`. Frequently used `EtherType` values [#fethertype]_ include `0x0800` for IPv4, `0x86DD` for IPv6 [#fipv6ether]_ and `0x806` for the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
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../../protocols/http.rst:14
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`anonymous` : in this mode, clients supply the `anonymous` user identifier and their email address as password. These clients are granted access to a special zone of the file system that only contains public files.
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../../protocols/http2.rst:48
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Proxies can also be located in front of servers. In this case, they are called reverse-proxies. Consider a dynamic web server that produces web pages by assembling information stored in different databases. When this server receives a request, it must send multiple queries to its databases and then create the HTML document. These queries and the creation of the HTML document take time and this limits the number of requests that our server can sustain. Many content providers would place a reverse proxy in front of such a server. The DNS servers are configured to point to the reverse proxy. Upon reception of a request, the reverse proxy first checks whether the response is already stored in its cache. If so, it can return it to the client without interacting with the official server. Otherwise, the reverse proxy contacts the server and then returns the response to the client.
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../../protocols/ipv6.rst:59
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The second type of datalink layer is the one used in Local Area Networks (LAN). Conceptually, a LAN is a set of communicating devices such that any two devices can directly exchange frames through the datalink layer. Both hosts and routers can be connected to a LAN. Some LANs only connect a few devices, but there are LANs that can connect hundreds or even thousands of devices.
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../../protocols/ppp.rst:13
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The first solution to transport IP packets over a serial line was proposed in :rfc:`1055` and is known as `Serial Line IP` (SLIP). SLIP is a simple character stuffing technique applied to IP packets. SLIP defines two special characters : `END` (decimal 192) and `ESC` (decimal 219). `END` appears at the beginning and at the end of each transmitted IP packet and the sender adds `ESC` before each `END` character inside each transmitted IP packet. SLIP only supports the transmission of IP packets and it assumes that the two communicating hosts/routers have been manually configured with each other's IP address. SLIP was mainly used over links offering bandwidth of often less than 20 Kbps. On such a low bandwidth link, sending 20 bytes of IP header followed by 20 bytes of TCP header for each TCP segment takes a lot of time. This initiated the development of a family of compression techniques to efficiently compress the TCP/IP headers. The first header compression technique proposed in :rfc:`1144` was designed to exploit the redundancy between several consecutive segments that belong to the same TCP connection. In all these segments, the IP addresses and port numbers are always the same. Furthermore, fields such as the sequence and acknowledgment numbers do not change in a random way. :rfc:`1144` defined simple techniques to reduce the redundancy found in successive segments. The development of header compression techniques continued and there are still improvements being developed now :rfc:`5795`.
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../../protocols/ppp.rst:17
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The `Point-to-Point Protocol` defines the framing technique to transport network layer packets.
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../../protocols/routing.rst:19
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These intradomain routing protocols usually have two objectives. First, they distribute routing information that corresponds to the shortest path between two routers in the domain. Second, they should allow the routers to quickly recover from link and router failures.
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../../protocols/rpc.rst:13
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The caller transfers the control of execution to the callee's procedure
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../../protocols/ssh.rst:46
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The secure shell protocol was designed in the mid 1990s by T. Ylonen to counter the eavesdropping attacks against :term:`telnet` and similar protocols [Ylonen1996]_. :term:`ssh` became quickly popular and system administrators encouraged its usage. The original version of :term:`ssh` was freely available. After a few years, his author created a company to distribute it commercially, but other programmers continued to develop an open-source version of :term:`ssh` called `OpenSSH <http://www.openssh.com>`_. Over the years, :term:`ssh` evolved and became a flexible applicable whose usage extends beyond remote login to support features such as file transfers, protocol tunneling, ... In this section, we only discuss the basic features of :term:`ssh` and explain how it differs from :term:`telnet`. Entire books have been written to describe :term:`ssh` in details [BS2005]_. An overview of the protocol appeared in [Stallings2009]_.
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../../protocols/tcp.rst:17
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World wide web ( :term:`HTTP`, ...)
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../../protocols/tls.rst:30
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A TLS session can be initiated in two different ways. First, the application can use a dedicated TCP port number for application layer protocol x-over-TLS. This is the solution used by many HTTP servers that reserve port :math:`443` for HTTP over TLS. This solution works, but it requires to reserve two ports for each application : one where the application-layer protocol is used directly over TCP and another one where the application-layer protocol is used over TLS. Given the limited number of TCP ports that are available, this is not a scalable solution. The table below provides some of the reserved port numbers for application layer protocols on top of TLS.
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../../protocols/transport-service.rst:13
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The connectionless service allows applications to easily exchange messages or Service Data Units. On the Internet, this service is provided by the UDP protocol that will be explained in the next chapter. The connectionless transport service on the Internet is unreliable, but is able to detect transmission errors. This implies that an application will not receive data that has been corrupted due to transmission errors.
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../../protocols/udp.rst:15
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the UDP service will not deliver a corrupted SDU to the destination
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../../protocols/wifi.rst:15
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Today, WiFi is a very popular wireless networking technology. There are more than several hundreds of millions of WiFi devices. The development of this technology started in the late 1980s with the `WaveLAN <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WaveLAN>`_ proprietary wireless network. WaveLAN operated at 2 Mbps and used different frequency bands in different regions of the world. In the early 1990s, the IEEE_ created the `802.11 working group <http://www.ieee802.org/11/>`_ to standardize a family of wireless network technologies. This working group was very prolific and produced several wireless networking standards that use different frequency ranges and different physical layers. The table below provides a summary of the main 802.11 standards.
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../../bibliography.rst:17
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Androutsellis-Theotokis, S. and Spinellis, D.. .. 2004. `A survey of peer-to-peer content distribution technologies <http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1041680.1041681>`_. ACM Computing Surveys 36, 4 (December 2004), 335-371.
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../../exercises/ex-sharing.rst:66
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In a shared medium, a collision may happen if two hosts transmit at almost the same time as shown in the example below.
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