Exit Zen
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../../protocols/bgp.rst:416
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`AS3` prefers the path `AS4:AS0` over all other paths
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../../protocols/email.rst:248
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../../protocols/ethernet.rst:397
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Switches, ports and links can fail in a switched Ethernet network. When a failure occurs, the switches must be able to recompute the spanning tree to recover from the failure. The `Spanning Tree Protocol` relies on regular transmissions of the `BPDUs` to detect these failures. A `BPDU` contains two additional fields : the `Age` of the `BPDU` and the `Maximum Age`. The `Age` contains the amount of time that has passed since the root switch initially originated the `BPDU`. The root switch sends its `BPDU` with an `Age` of zero and each switch that computes its own `BPDU` increments its `Age` by one. The `Age` of the `BPDUs` stored on a switch's table is also incremented every second. A `BPDU` expires when its `Age` reaches the `Maximum Age`. When the network is stable, this does not happen as `BPDU` s are regularly sent by the `root` switch and downstream switches. However, if the `root` fails or the network becomes partitioned, `BPDU` will expire and switches will recompute their own `BPDU` and restart the `Spanning Tree Protocol`. Once a topology change has been detected, the forwarding of the data frames stops as the topology is not guaranteed to be loop-free. Additional details about the reaction to failures may be found in [IEEE802.1d]_.
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../../protocols/ipv6.rst:382
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``10`` (resp. ``11``) : if a node does not recognize this header, it must return a control packet (ICMP, see later) back to the source (resp. except if the destination was a multicast address)
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../../protocols/ethernet.rst:373
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Port state
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../../protocols/tcp.rst:332 • ../../protocols/tcp.rst:345
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Maximum Throughput
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../../glossary.rst:279
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A MIME document is a document, encoded by using the :term:`MIME` format.
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../../principles/network.rst:447
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The figure below shows the path followed by the packets on the `R1->R3->R4->R2->R5` path in red with on each arrow the label used in the packets.
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../../principles/reliability.rst:401
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random isolated errors where the value of a single bit has been modified due to a transmission error
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../../principles/sharing.rst:515
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The `Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance` (CSMA/CA) Medium Access Control algorithm was designed for the popular WiFi wireless network technology [IEEE802.11]_. CSMA/CA also senses the transmission channel before transmitting a frame. Furthermore, CSMA/CA tries to avoid collisions by carefully tuning the timers used by CSMA/CA devices.
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../../protocols/bgp.rst:417
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`AS4` prefers the path `AS1:AS0` over all other paths
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../../protocols/email.rst:248
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Z
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../../protocols/ethernet.rst:402
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Virtual LANs
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../../protocols/ipv6.rst:384
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This encoding allows the designers of protocol extensions to specify whether the option must be supported by all nodes on a path or not. Still, deploying such an extension can be difficult in practice.
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../../protocols/ethernet.rst:373
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Receives BPDUs
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../../protocols/tcp.rst:334 • ../../protocols/tcp.rst:347
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1 msec
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../../glossary.rst:274
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minicomputer
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../../principles/network.rst:472
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MultiProtocol Label Switching (MPLS) is the example of a deployed networking technology that relies on label switching. MPLS is more complex than the above description because it has been designed to be easily integrated with datagram technologies. However, the principles remain. `Asynchronous Transfer Mode` (ATM) and Frame Relay are other examples of technologies that rely on `label switching`.
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../../principles/reliability.rst:402
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random burst errors where the values of `n` consecutive bits have been changed due to transmission errors
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../../principles/transport.rst:608
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Unfortunately, this scheme is not sufficient to ensure the reliability of the transport service. Consider for example a short-lived transport connection where a single, but important transfer (e.g. money transfer from a bank account) is sent. Such a short-lived connection starts with a `CR` segment acknowledged by a `CA` segment, then the data segment is sent, acknowledged and the connection terminates. Unfortunately, as the network layer service is unreliable, delays combined to retransmissions may lead to the situation depicted in the figure below, where a delayed `CR` and data segments from a former connection are accepted by the receiving entity as valid segments, and the corresponding data is delivered to the user. Duplicating SDUs is not acceptable, and the transport protocol must solve this problem.
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