Exit Zen
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The need for fragmentation and reassembly
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The [IEEE802.1q]_ header is inserted immediately after the source MAC address in the Ethernet frame (i.e. before the EtherType field). The maximum frame size is increased by 4 bytes. It is encoded in 32 bits and contains four fields. The Tag Protocol Identifier is set to `0x8100` to allow the receiver to detect the presence of this additional header. The `Priority Code Point` (PCP) is a three bit field that is used to support different transmission priorities for the frame. Value `0` is the lowest priority and value `7` the highest. Frames with a higher priority can expect to be forwarded earlier than frames having a lower priority. The `C` bit is used for compatibility between Ethernet and Token Ring networks. The last 12 bits of the 802.1q header contain the VLAN identifier. Value `0` indicates that the frame does not belong to any VLAN while value `0xFFF` is reserved. This implies that 4094 different VLAN identifiers can be used in an Ethernet network.
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../../protocols/tcp.rst:381
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How to measure the round-trip-time ?
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OSI
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../../principles/reliability.rst:432 • ../../principles/reliability.rst:449
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001
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Three-way handshake : recovery from duplicates `CR` and `CA`
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While the basic principles of the Token Ring are simple, there are several subtle implementation details that add complexity to Token Ring networks. To understand these details let us analyze the operation of a Token Ring interface on a station. A Token Ring interface serves three different purposes. Like other LAN interfaces, it must be able to send and receive frames. In addition, a Token Ring interface is part of the ring, and as such, it must be able to forward the electrical signal that passes on the ring even when its station is powered off.
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An analysis of the evolution of the number of domains on the global Internet during the last ten years may be found in http://www.potaroo.net/tools/asn32/.
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c
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../../protocols/ipv6.rst:422
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To solve these problems, IPv6 includes a packet fragmentation and reassembly mechanism. In IPv4, fragmentation was performed by both the hosts and the intermediate routers. However, experience with IPv4 has shown that fragmenting packets in routers was costly [KM1995]_. For this reason, the developers of IPv6 have decided that routers would not fragment packets anymore. In IPv6, fragmentation is only performed by the source host. If a source has to send a packet which is larger than the MTU of the outgoing interface, the packet needs to be fragmented before being transmitted. In IPv6, each packet fragment is an IPv6 packet that includes the `Fragmentation` header. This header is included by the source in each packet fragment. The receiver uses them to reassemble the received fragments.
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802.11 wireless networks
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However, when a data segment is lost, as illustrated in the bottom part of the figure, the measurement is ambiguous as the sender cannot determine whether the received acknowledgment was triggered by the first transmission of segment `123` or its retransmission. Using incorrect round-trip-time estimations could lead to incorrect values of the retransmission timeout. For this reason, Phil Karn and Craig Partridge proposed, in [KP91]_, to ignore the round-trip-time measurements performed during retransmissions.
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../../glossary.rst:95
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Open Systems Interconnection. A set of networking standards developed by :term:`ISO` including the 7 layers OSI reference model.
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../../principles/dv.rst:70
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Assume that router `A` is the first to send its distance vector `[A=0]`.
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../../principles/reliability.rst:433 • ../../principles/reliability.rst:450
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010
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Data transfer
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When powered-on, Token Ring interfaces operate in two different modes : `listen` and `transmit`. When operating in `listen` mode, a Token Ring interface receives an electrical signal from its upstream neighbor on the ring, introduces a delay equal to the transmission time of one bit on the ring and regenerates the signal before sending it to its downstream neighbor on the ring.
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Several web sites collect and analyze data about the evolution of BGP in the global Internet. http://bgp.potaroo.net provides lots of statistics and analyzes that are updated daily.
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