Exit Zen
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../../exercises/trace.rst:107
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Use wireshark to analyze the packet traces described earlier :download:`traces/simple-trace.pcap`.
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../../protocols/bgp.rst:66
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The second type of peering relationship is the `shared-cost` peering relationship. Such a relationship usually does not involve a payment from one domain to the other in contrast with the `customer->provider` relationship. A `shared-cost` peering relationship is usually established between domains having a similar size and geographic coverage. For example, consider the figure above. If `AS3` and `AS4` exchange many packets via `AS1`, they both need to pay `AS1`. A cheaper alternative for `AS3` and `AS4` would be to establish a `shared-cost` peering. Such a peering can be established at IXPs where both `AS3` and `AS4` are present or by using private peering links. This `shared-cost` peering should be used to exchange packets between hosts inside `AS3` and hosts inside `AS4`. However, `AS3` does not want to receive on the `AS3-AS4` `shared-cost` peering links packets whose destination belongs to `AS1` as `AS3` would have to pay to send these packets to `AS1`.
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../../protocols/congestion.rst:106
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As explained earlier, Explicit Congestion Notification :rfc:`3168` improves the detection of congestion by allowing routers to explicitly mark packets when they are lightly congested. In theory, a single bit in the packet header [RJ1995]_ is sufficient to support this congestion control scheme. When a host receives a marked packet, it returns the congestion information to the source that adapts its transmission rate accordingly. Although the idea is relatively simple, deploying it on the entire Internet has proven to be challenging [KNT2013]_. It is interesting to analyze the different factors that have hindered the deployment of this technique.
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../../protocols/dnssec.rst:182
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The security of DNSSEC relies on `anchored keys`. An `anchored key` is a public key that is considered as trusted by a resolver. In our example, we assume that Alice's resolver has obtained the public key of the servers that manage the root zone in a secure way. This key has been distributed outside of the DNS, e.g. it has been published in a newspaper or has been received in a sealed letter.
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../../protocols/email.rst:106
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the `cc:` header line is used by the sender to provide a list of email addresses that must receive a carbon copy of the message. Several addresses can be listed in this header line, separated by commas. All recipients of the email message receive the `To:` and `cc:` header lines.
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../../protocols/ethernet.rst:109
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Several physical layers have been defined for Ethernet networks. The first physical layer, usually called 10Base5, provided 10 Mbps over a thick coaxial cable. The characteristics of the cable and the transceivers that were used then enabled the utilization of 500 meter long segments. A 10Base5 network can also include repeaters between segments.
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../../protocols/http.rst:94
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The second component of the `word wide web` is the HyperText Markup Language (HTML). HTML defines the format of the documents that are exchanged on the `web`. The `first version of HTML <http://www.w3.org/History/19921103-hypertext/hypertext/WWW/MarkUp/Tags.html>`_ was derived from the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) that was standardized in 1986 by :term:`ISO`. SGML_ was designed to support large documents maintained by government, law firms or aerospace companies that must be shared efficiently in a machine-readable manner. These industries require documents to remain readable and editable for tens of years and insisted on a standardized format supported by multiple vendors. Today, SGML_ is no longer widely used beyond specific applications, but its descendants including :term:`HTML` and :term:`XML` are now widespread.
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../../protocols/http2.rst:141
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Another limitation of HTTP/1.1 is that all commands and parameters are encoded as ASCII strings. Using ASCII strings makes it easy to write simple clients or debug problems by observing packets. Unfortunately, the burden is placed on servers that need to include complex parsers that accept a wide range of partially compliant implementations. Furthermore, the flexibility of the ASCII encoding has enabled some classes of security attacks on servers [CWE444]_.
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../../protocols/ipv6.rst:97
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A host should be able to configure its IPv6 address automatically
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../../protocols/ethernet.rst:19
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The datalink layer addresses used in Ethernet networks are often called MAC addresses. They are structured as shown in the figure below. The first bit of the address indicates whether the address identifies a network adapter or a multicast group. The upper 24 bits are used to encode an Organization Unique Identifier (OUI). This OUI identifies a block of addresses that has been allocated by the secretariat [#foui]_ that is responsible for the uniqueness of Ethernet addresses to a manufacturer. Once a manufacturer has received an OUI, it can build and sell products with one of the 16 million addresses in this block.
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../../protocols/routing.rst:65
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OSPF
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../../protocols/rpc.rst:67
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A second popular method to encode data is the JavaScript Object Notation (JSON). This syntax was initially defined to allow applications written in JavaScript to exchange data, but it has now wider usages. JSON :rfc:`4627` is a text-based representation. The simplest data type is the integer. It is represented as a sequence of digits in ASCII. Strings can also be encoding by using JSON. A JSON string always starts and ends with a quote character (`"`) as in the C language. As in the C language, some characters (like `"` or `\\`) must be escaped if they appear in a string. :rfc:`4627` describes this in details. Booleans are also supported by using the strings `false` and `true`. Like XDR, JSON supports more complex data types. A structure or object is defined as a comma separated list of elements enclosed in curly brackets. :rfc:`4627` provides the following example as an illustration.
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../../protocols/ssh.rst:151
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This is a slightly modified authenticated Diffie Hellman key exchange with two interesting points. The first point is that when the server authenticates the key exchange it does not provide a certificate. This is because ``ssh`` assumes that the client will store inside its cache the public key of the servers that it uses on a regular basis. This assumption is valid for a protocol like ``ssh`` because users typically use it to interact with a small number of servers, typically a few or a few tens. Storing this information does not require a lot of storage. In practice, most ``ssh`` clients will accept to connect to remote servers without knowing their public key before the connection. In this case, the client issues a warning to the user who can decide to accept or reject the key. This warning can be associated with a fingerprint of the key, either as a sequence of letters or as an ASCII art which can be posted on the web or elsewhere [#fdnsssh]_ by the system administrator of the server. If a client connects to a server whose public key does not match the stored one, a stronger warning is issued because this could indicate a man-in-the-middle attack or that the remote server has been compromised. It can also indicate that the server has been upgraded and that a new key has been generated during this upgrade.
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../../protocols/tcp.rst:45
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the `Urgent pointer` is used to indicate that some data should be considered as urgent in a TCP bytestream. However, it is rarely used in practice and will not be described here. Additional details about the utilization of this pointer may be found in :rfc:`793`, :rfc:`1122` or [Stevens1994]_
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../../protocols/tls.rst:46
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80
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../../protocols/transport-service.rst:58
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`2001:db8:0:0:8:800:200c:417a` is represented as `2001:db8::8:800:200c:417a`
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../../protocols/udp.rst:64
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In most Unix variants, only processes having system administrator privileges can be bound to port numbers smaller than `1024`. Well-known servers such as :term:`DNS`, :term:`NTP` or :term:`RPC` use privileged port numbers. When a client needs to use UDP, it usually does not require a specific port number. In this case, the UDP implementation will allocate the first available port number in the ephemeral range. The range of registered port numbers should be used by servers. In theory, developers of network servers should register their port number officially through IANA [#fportnum]_, but few developers do this.
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../../protocols/wifi.rst:23 • ../../protocols/wifi.rst:25
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54 Mbps
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../../bibliography.rst:66
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Fletcher, J., `An Arithmetic Checksum for Serial Transmissions <https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TCOM.1982.1095369>`_, Communications, IEEE Transactions on, Jan. 1982, Vol. 30, N. 1, pp. 247-252
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../../glossary.rst:156
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BGP
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