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../../protocols/dnssec.rst:28
English
The second type of attack is the `man-in-the-middle` attack. Consider that Alice is sending DNS requests to her DNS resolver. Unfortunately, Mallory sits in front of this resolver and can capture and modify all the packets sent by Alice to her resolver. In this case, Mallory can easily modify the DNS responses sent by the resolver to redirect Alice's packets to a different IP address controlled by Mallory. This enables Mallory to observe (and possibly modify) all the packets sent and received by Alice. In practice, executing this attack is not simple since DNS resolvers are usually installed in protected datacenters. However, if Mallory controls the WiFi access point that Alice uses to access the Internet, he could easily modify the packets on this access point and some software packages automate this type of attacks.
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../../protocols/email.rst:47
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The email system that we consider in this book is composed of four components :
0/790 · 79
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../../protocols/ethernet.rst:19
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The datalink layer addresses used in Ethernet networks are often called MAC addresses. They are structured as shown in the figure below. The first bit of the address indicates whether the address identifies a network adapter or a multicast group. The upper 24 bits are used to encode an Organization Unique Identifier (OUI). This OUI identifies a block of addresses that has been allocated by the secretariat [#foui]_ that is responsible for the uniqueness of Ethernet addresses to a manufacturer. Once a manufacturer has received an OUI, it can build and sell products with one of the 16 million addresses in this block.
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../../protocols/http.rst:13
English
`authenticated` : in this mode, the ftp server only accepts users with a valid user name and password. Once authenticated, they can access the files and directories according to their permissions
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../../protocols/http2.rst:46
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Caches can also be used inside the network. To understand their benefits, let us consider an SME with a dozen of employees that are connected to the Internet through a low-speed link. These employees often access similar web sites. Consider that Alice and Bob want to browse today's local newspaper. Their browsers will both retrieve the newspaper's website through the low bandwidth link and store the main documents in their cache. Unfortunately, the same information passes twice over the low-speed link. Some companies have deployed web proxies to cope with this problem. A web proxy is a server that resides in the enterprise network. All the employee's browsers are configured to send their HTTP requests to this proxy. When such a proxy receives a request, it checks whether the content is already stored inside its own cache. If so, it returns it directly. Otherwise, the request is sent to the remote server and the information is stored in the proxy cache. By reducing the number of web objects that are exchanged over low-speed links, such proxies can significantly improve performance. Some companies also use them to control the websites that are contacted by their employees and sometimes block illegitimate accesses.
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../../protocols/ipv6.rst:57
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There are three main types of datalink layers. The simplest datalink layer is when there are only two communicating systems that are directly connected through the physical layer. Such a datalink layer is used when there is a point-to-point link between the two communicating systems. The two systems can be hosts or routers. :abbr:`PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)`, defined in :rfc:`1661`, is an example of such a point-to-point datalink layer. Datalink layers exchange `frames` and a datalink :term:`frame` sent by a datalink layer entity on the left is transmitted through the physical layer, so that it can reach the datalink layer entity on the right. Point-to-point datalink layers can either provide an unreliable service (frames can be corrupted or lost) or a reliable service (in this case, the datalink layer includes retransmission mechanisms similar to the ones used in the transport layer). The unreliable service is frequently used above physical layers (e.g. optical fiber, twisted pairs) having a low bit error ratio while reliability mechanisms are often used in wireless networks to recover locally from transmission errors.
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../../protocols/ppp.rst:9
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Many point-to-point datalink layers [#flapb]_ have been developed, starting in the 1960s. In this section, we focus on the protocols that are often used to transport IP packets between hosts or routers that are directly connected by a point-to-point link. This link can be a dedicated physical cable, a leased line through the telephone network or a dial-up connection with modems on the two communicating hosts.
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../../protocols/ppp.rst:15
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While SLIP was implemented and used in some environments, it had several limitations discussed in :rfc:`1055`. The `Point-to-Point Protocol` (PPP) was designed shortly after and is specified in :rfc:`1548`. PPP aims to support IP and other network layer protocols over various types of serial lines. PPP is in fact a family of three protocols that are used together :
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../../protocols/routing.rst:17
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The first class of routing protocols are the `intradomain routing protocols` (sometimes also called the interior gateway protocols or :term:`IGP`). An intradomain routing protocol is used by all routers inside a domain to exchange routing information about the destinations that are reachable inside the domain. There are several intradomain routing protocols. Some domains use :term:`RIP`, which is a distance vector protocol. Other domains use link-state routing protocols such as :term:`OSPF` or :term:`IS-IS`. Finally, some domains use static routing or proprietary protocols such as :term:`IGRP` or :term:`EIGRP`.
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../../protocols/rpc.rst:12
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The caller places the values of the parameters at a location (register, stack, ...) where the callee can access them
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../../protocols/ssh.rst:40
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The secure shell (ssh)
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../../protocols/tcp.rst:16
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Email (:term:`SMTP`, :term:`POP`, :term:`IMAP`)
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../../protocols/tls.rst:23
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A TLS session operates over a TCP connection. TLS is responsible for the encryption and the authentication of the SDUs exchanged by the application layer protocol while TCP provides the reliable delivery of this encrypted and authenticated bytestream. TLS is used by many different application layer protocols. The most frequent ones are HTTP (HTTP over TLS is called HTTPS), SMTP :rfc:`3207` or POP and IMAP :rfc:`2595`, but proprietary application-layer protocols also use TLS [AM2019]_.
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../../protocols/transport-service.rst:11
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the `connection-oriented` or `byte-stream` service
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../../protocols/transport.rst:13
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The Real Time Transport Protocol (RTP), defined in :rfc:`3550` is another important protocol that is used by many multimedia applications. It includes functions that belong to the transport layer, but also functions that are related to the encoding of the information. Due to space limitations, we do not discuss it in this section.
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../../protocols/udp.rst:14
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the UDP service does not guarantee the delivery of SDUs (losses can occur and SDUs can arrive out-of-sequence)
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../../protocols/wifi.rst:13
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While most of the frequency ranges of the radio spectrum are reserved for specific applications and require a special license, there are a few exceptions. These exceptions are known as the `Industrial, Scientific and Medical <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISM_band>`_ (ISM) radio bands. These bands can be used for industrial, scientific and medical applications without requiring a license from the regulator. For example, some radio-controlled models use the 27 MHz ISM band and some cordless telephones operate in the 915 MHz ISM. In 1985, the 2.400-2.500 GHz band was added to the list of ISM bands. This frequency range corresponds to the frequencies that are emitted by microwave ovens. Sharing this band with licensed applications would have likely caused interference, given the large number of microwave ovens that are used. Despite the risk of interference with microwave ovens, the opening of the 2.400-2.500 GHz allowed the networking industry to develop several wireless network techniques to allow computers to exchange data without using cables. In this section, we discuss in more detail the most popular one, i.e. the WiFi [IEEE802.11]_ family of wireless networks. Other wireless networking techniques such as `BlueTooth <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlueTooth>`_ or `HiperLAN <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiperLAN>`_ use the same frequency range.
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../../bibliography.rst:14
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LAN/MAN Standards Committee of the IEEE Computer Society. IEEE Standard for Information technology--Telecommunications and information exchange between systems--Local and metropolitan area networks--Specific requirements--Part 5: Token Ring Access Method and Physical Layer Specification. IEEE, 1998. available from http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802
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../../glossary.rst:185
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Additive Increase, Multiplicative Decrease. A rate adaption algorithm used notably by TCP where a host additively increases its transmission rate when the network is not congested and multiplicatively decreases when congested is detected.
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../../exercises/ex-sharing.rst:42
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If the transmitting host is located at another position on the shared medium than one of the edges, then the geometrical pattern that represents the transmission of a frame is slightly different. If the transmitting host is placed in the middle of the cable, then the signal is transmitted in both directions on the cable. The figure below shows the transmission of one 100 bits frame at 100 Mbps by host C on the same cable.
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