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The first solution that allowed applications to use names was the :term:`hosts.txt` file. This file is similar to the symbol table found in compiled code. It contains the mapping between the name of each Internet host and its associated address [#fhosts]_. It was maintained by SRI International that coordinated the Network Information Center (NIC). When a new host was connected to the network, the system administrator had to register its name and address at the NIC. The NIC updated the :term:`hosts.txt` file on its server. All Internet hosts regularly retrieved the updated :term:`hosts.txt` file from the SRI_ server. This file was stored at a well-known location on each Internet host (see :rfc:`952`) and networked applications could use it to find the address corresponding to a name.
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Part 1: Principles
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Androutsellis-Theotokis, S. and Spinellis, D.. .. 2004. `A survey of peer-to-peer content distribution technologies <http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1041680.1041681>`_. ACM Computing Surveys 36, 4 (December 2004), 335-371.
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A :term:`hosts.txt` file can be used when there are up to a few hundred hosts on the network. However, it is clearly not suitable for a network containing thousands or millions of hosts. A key issue in a large network is to define a suitable naming scheme. The ARPANet initially used a flat naming space, i.e. each host was assigned a unique name. To limit collisions between names, these names usually contained the name of the institution and a suffix to identify the host inside the institution (a kind of poor man's hierarchical naming scheme). On the ARPANet few institutions had several hosts connected to the network.
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Part 2: Protocols
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Abramson, N., `THE ALOHA SYSTEM: another alternative for computer communications <http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1478462.1478502>`_. In Proceedings of the November 17-19, 1970, Fall Joint Computer Conference (Houston, Texas, November 17 - 19, 1970). AFIPS '70 (Fall). ACM, New York, NY, 281-285.
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However, the limitations of a flat naming scheme became clear before the end of the ARPANet and :rfc:`819` proposed a hierarchical naming scheme. While :rfc:`819` discussed the possibility of organizing the names as a directed graph, the Internet opted for a tree structure capable of containing all names. In this tree, the top-level domains are those that are directly attached to the root. The first top-level domain was `.arpa` [#fdnstimeline]_. This top-level name was initially added as a suffix to the names of the hosts attached to the ARPANet and listed in the `hosts.txt` file. In 1984, the `.gov`, `.edu`, `.com`, `.mil` and `.org` generic top-level domain names were added. :rfc:`1032` proposed the utilization of the two letter :term:`ISO-3166` country codes as top-level domain names. Since :term:`ISO-3166` defines a two letter code for each country recognized by the United Nations, this allowed all countries to automatically have a top-level domain. These domains include `.be` for Belgium, `.fr` for France, `.us` for the USA, `.ie` for Ireland or `.tv` for Tuvalu, a group of small islands in the Pacific or `.tm` for Turkmenistan. The set of top-level domain-names is managed by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (:term:`ICANN`). :term:`ICANN` adds generic top-level domains that are not related to a country and the `.cat` top-level domain has been registered for the Catalan language. There are ongoing discussions within :term:`ICANN` to increase the number of top-level domains.
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Part 3: Practice
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Bonomi, F. and Fendick, K.W., `The rate-based flow control framework for the available bit rate ATM service <https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/65.372653>`_, IEEE Network, Mar/Apr 1995, Volume: 9, Issue: 2, pages : 25-39
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Each top-level domain is managed by an organization that decides how sub-domain names can be registered. Most top-level domain names use a first-come first served system, and allow anyone to register domain names, but there are some exceptions. For example, `.gov` is reserved for the US government, `.int` is reserved for international organizations and names in the `.ca` are mainly `reserved <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ca>`_ for companies or users that are present in Canada.
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Appendices
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Beech, W., Nielsen, D., Taylor, J., `AX.25 Link Access Protocol for Amateur Packet Radio <http://www.tapr.org/pdf/AX25.2.2.pdf>`_, version 2.2, Revision: July 1998
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The syntax of the domain names has been defined more precisely in :rfc:`1035`. This document recommends the following :term:`BNF` for fully qualified domain names (the domain names themselves have a much richer syntax).
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Indices and tables
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Bux, W., `Token-ring local-area networks and their performance <http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=18625>`_, Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol 77, No 2, p. 238-259, Feb. 1989
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BNF of the fully qualified host names
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:ref:`genindex`
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Buford, J., Yu, H., Lua, E.K., `P2P Networking and Applications <http://books.google.com/books?id=O9NkAaY9YxMC>`_, Morgan Kaufmann, 2008
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This grammar specifies that a host name is an ordered list of labels separated by the dot (`.`) character. Each label can contain letters, numbers and the hyphen character (`-`) [#fidn]_. Fully qualified domain names are read from left to right. The first label is a hostname or a domain name followed by the hierarchy of domains and ending with the root implicitly at the right. The top-level domain name must be one of the registered TLDs [#ftld]_. For example, in the above figure, `www.computer-networking.info` corresponds to a host named `www` inside the `computer-networking` domain that belongs to the `info` top-level domain.
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:ref:`search`
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