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187 15,702 97,031
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Summary

Project website www.computer-networking.info
Project maintainers2 User avatar obonaventureUser avatar qdeconinck
Translation license Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Unported
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  • Any authenticated user can contribute.
  • The translation uses bilingual files.
Source code repository https://github.com/cnp3/ebook
Repository branch master
Last remote commit Merge pull request #159 from bhesmans/docker-build 5d27036
Olivier Bonaventure authored 7 months ago
Last commit in Weblate Merge pull request #159 from bhesmans/docker-build 5d27036
Olivier Bonaventure authored 7 months ago
Weblate repository https://weblate.info.ucl.ac.be/git/cnp3-ebook/index/
File mask locale/*/LC_MESSAGES/principles/sharing.po
Translation file Download locale/pot/principles/sharing.pot
Last change Sept. 17, 2022, 1:14 a.m.
Last change made by None
Language English
Language code en
Text direction Left to right
Case sensitivity Case-sensitive
Number of speakers 1,728,003,224
Number of plurals 2
Plural type One/other
Plurals Singular 1
Plural 0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, …
Plural formula n != 1
3 weeks ago

String statistics

Strings percent Hosted strings Words percent Hosted words Characters percent Hosted characters
Total 187 15,702 97,031
Translated 100% 187 100% 15,702 100% 97,031
Needs editing 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0
Read-only 100% 187 100% 15,702 100% 97,031
Failing checks 3% 7 8% 1,283 8% 7,789
Strings with suggestions 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0
Untranslated strings 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0
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Resource updated
File “locale/pot/principles/sharing.pot” was added. 3 years ago
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Some examples of the performance of various types of commercial networks nodes (routers and switches) may be found in http://www.cisco.com/web/partners/downloads/765/tools/quickreference/routerperformance.pdf and http://www.cisco.com/web/partners/downloads/765/tools/quickreference/switchperformance.pdf
Some examples of the performance of various types of commercial networks nodes (routers and switches) may be found in http://www.cisco.com/web/partners/downloads/765/tools/quickreference/routerperformance.pdf and http://www.cisco.com/web/partners/downloads/765/tools/quickreference/switchperformance.pdf
3 years ago
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There are still some vendors that try to put as many buffers as possible on their routers. A recent example is the buffer bloat problem that plagues some low-end Internet routers [GN2011]_.
There are still some vendors that try to put as many buffers as possible on their routers. A recent example is the buffer bloat problem that plagues some low-end Internet routers [GN2011]_.
3 years ago
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For the `Additive Increase` part our simple protocol would simply increase its `congestion window` by one segment every round-trip-time. The `Multiplicative Decrease` part of `AIMD` could be implemented by halving the congestion window when congestion is detected. For simplicity, we assume that congestion is detected thanks to a binary feedback and that no segments are lost. We will discuss in more details how losses affect a real transport protocol like TCP in later sections.
For the `Additive Increase` part our simple protocol would simply increase its `congestion window` by one segment every round-trip-time. The `Multiplicative Decrease` part of `AIMD` could be implemented by halving the congestion window when congestion is detected. For simplicity, we assume that congestion is detected thanks to a binary feedback and that no segments are lost. We will discuss in more details how losses affect a real transport protocol like TCP in later sections.
3 years ago
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From the above example, we can adjust the transmission rate by adjusting the sending window of a reliable transport protocol. A reliable transport protocol cannot send data faster than :math:`\frac{window}{rtt}` segments per second where :math:`window` is the current sending window. To control the transmission rate, we introduce a `congestion window`. This congestion window limits the sending window. At any time, the sending window is restricted to :math:`\min(swin,cwin)`, where `swin` is the sending window and `cwin` the current `congestion window`. Of course, the window is further constrained by the receive window advertised by the remote peer. With the utilization of a congestion window, a simple reliable transport protocol that uses fixed size segments could implement `AIMD` as follows.
From the above example, we can adjust the transmission rate by adjusting the sending window of a reliable transport protocol. A reliable transport protocol cannot send data faster than :math:`\frac{window}{rtt}` segments per second where :math:`window` is the current sending window. To control the transmission rate, we introduce a `congestion window`. This congestion window limits the sending window. At any time, the sending window is restricted to :math:`\min(swin,cwin)`, where `swin` is the sending window and `cwin` the current `congestion window`. Of course, the window is further constrained by the receive window advertised by the remote peer. With the utilization of a congestion window, a simple reliable transport protocol that uses fixed size segments could implement `AIMD` as follows.
3 years ago
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The links between the hosts and the routers have a bandwidth of 1 Mbps while the link between the two routers has a bandwidth of 500 Kbps. There is no significant propagation delay in this network. For simplicity, assume that hosts `A` and `B` send 1000 bits packets. The transmission of such a packet on a `host-router` (resp. `router-router` ) link requires 1 msec (resp. 2 msec). If there is no traffic in the network, the round-trip-time measured by host `A` to reach `D` is slightly larger than 4 msec. Let us observe the flow of packets with different window sizes to understand the relationship between sending window and transmission rate.
The links between the hosts and the routers have a bandwidth of 1 Mbps while the link between the two routers has a bandwidth of 500 Kbps. There is no significant propagation delay in this network. For simplicity, assume that hosts `A` and `B` send 1000 bits packets. The transmission of such a packet on a `host-router` (resp. `router-router` ) link requires 1 msec (resp. 2 msec). If there is no traffic in the network, the round-trip-time measured by host `A` to reach `D` is slightly larger than 4 msec. Let us observe the flow of packets with different window sizes to understand the relationship between sending window and transmission rate.
3 years ago
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Let us consider that host `A` uses a window of three segments. It thus sends three back-to-back segments at `10 Mbps` and then waits for an acknowledgment. Host `A` stops sending segments when its window is full. These segments reach the buffers of router `R1`. The first segment stored in this buffer is sent by router `R1` at a rate of `2 Mbps` to the destination host. Upon reception of this segment, the destination sends an acknowledgment. This acknowledgment allows host `A` to transmit a new segment. This segment is stored in the buffers of router `R1` while it is transmitting the second segment that was sent by host `A`... Thus, after the transmission of the first window of segments, the reliable transport protocol sends one data segment after the reception of each acknowledgment returned by the destination. In practice, the acknowledgments sent by the destination serve as a kind of `clock` that allows the sending host to adapt its transmission rate to the rate at which segments are received by the destination. This `self-clocking` is the first mechanism that allows a window-based reliable transport protocol to adapt to heterogeneous networks [Jacobson1988]_. It depends on the availability of buffers to store the segments that have been sent by the sender but have not yet been transmitted to the destination.
Let us consider that host `A` uses a window of three segments. It thus sends three back-to-back segments at `10 Mbps` and then waits for an acknowledgment. Host `A` stops sending segments when its window is full. These segments reach the buffers of router `R1`. The first segment stored in this buffer is sent by router `R1` at a rate of `2 Mbps` to the destination host. Upon reception of this segment, the destination sends an acknowledgment. This acknowledgment allows host `A` to transmit a new segment. This segment is stored in the buffers of router `R1` while it is transmitting the second segment that was sent by host `A`... Thus, after the transmission of the first window of segments, the reliable transport protocol sends one data segment after the reception of each acknowledgment returned by the destination. In practice, the acknowledgments sent by the destination serve as a kind of `clock` that allows the sending host to adapt its transmission rate to the rate at which segments are received by the destination. This `self-clocking` is the first mechanism that allows a window-based reliable transport protocol to adapt to heterogeneous networks [Jacobson1988]_. It depends on the availability of buffers to store the segments that have been sent by the sender but have not yet been transmitted to the destination.
3 years ago
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Now that we have explained how the token can be forwarded on the ring, let us analyze how a station can capture a token to transmit a data frame. For this, we need some information about the format of the data frames. An 802.5 data frame begins with the `Starting Delimiter` followed by the `Access Control` field whose `Token` bit is reset, a `Frame Control` field that enables the definition of several types of frames, destination and source address, a payload, a CRC, the `Ending Delimiter` and a `Frame Status` field. The format of the Token Ring data frames is illustrated below.
Now that we have explained how the token can be forwarded on the ring, let us analyze how a station can capture a token to transmit a data frame. For this, we need some information about the format of the data frames. An 802.5 data frame begins with the `Starting Delimiter` followed by the `Access Control` field whose `Token` bit is reset, a `Frame Control` field that enables the definition of several types of frames, destination and source address, a payload, a CRC, the `Ending Delimiter` and a `Frame Status` field. The format of the Token Ring data frames is illustrated below.
3 years ago
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Both the proponents of the deterministic and the opportunistic techniques lobbied to develop standards for Local Area networks that would incorporate their solution. Instead of trying to find an impossible compromise between these diverging views, the IEEE 802 committee that was chartered to develop Local Area Network standards chose to work in parallel on three different LAN technologies and created three working groups. The `IEEE 802.3 working group <http://www.ieee802.org/3/>`_ became responsible for CSMA/CD. The proponents of deterministic MAC algorithms agreed on the basic principle of exchanging special frames called tokens between devices to regulate the access to the transmission medium. However, they did not agree on the most suitable physical layout for the network. IBM argued in favor of Ring-shaped networks while the manufacturing industry, led by General Motors, argued in favor of a bus-shaped network. This led to the creation of the `IEEE 802.4 working group <http://www.ieee802.org/4/>`_ to standardize Token Bus networks and the `IEEE 802.5 working group <http://www.ieee802.org/5/>`_ to standardize Token Ring networks. Although these techniques are not widely used anymore today, the principles behind a token-based protocol are still important.
Both the proponents of the deterministic and the opportunistic techniques lobbied to develop standards for Local Area networks that would incorporate their solution. Instead of trying to find an impossible compromise between these diverging views, the IEEE 802 committee that was chartered to develop Local Area Network standards chose to work in parallel on three different LAN technologies and created three working groups. The `IEEE 802.3 working group <http://www.ieee802.org/3/>`_ became responsible for CSMA/CD. The proponents of deterministic MAC algorithms agreed on the basic principle of exchanging special frames called tokens between devices to regulate the access to the transmission medium. However, they did not agree on the most suitable physical layout for the network. IBM argued in favor of Ring-shaped networks while the manufacturing industry, led by General Motors, argued in favor of a bus-shaped network. This led to the creation of the `IEEE 802.4 working group <http://www.ieee802.org/4/>`_ to standardize Token Bus networks and the `IEEE 802.5 working group <http://www.ieee802.org/5/>`_ to standardize Token Ring networks. Although these techniques are not widely used anymore today, the principles behind a token-based protocol are still important.
3 years ago
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CSMA improves channel utilization compared to ALOHA. However, the performance can still be improved, especially in wired networks. Consider the situation of two terminals that are connected to the same cable. This cable could, for example, be a coaxial cable as in the early days of Ethernet [Metcalfe1976]_. It could also be built with twisted pairs. Before extending CSMA, it is useful to understand, more intuitively, how frames are transmitted in such a network and how collisions can occur. The figure below illustrates the physical transmission of a frame on such a cable. To transmit its frame, host A must send an electrical signal on the shared medium. The first step is thus to begin the transmission of the electrical signal. This is point `(1)` in the figure below. This electrical signal will travel along the cable. Although electrical signals travel fast, we know that information cannot travel faster than the speed of light (i.e. 300.000 kilometers/second). On a coaxial cable, an electrical signal is slightly slower than the speed of light and 200.000 kilometers per second is a reasonable estimation. This implies that if the cable has a length of one kilometer, the electrical signal will need 5 microseconds to travel from one end of the cable to the other. The ends of coaxial cables are equipped with termination points that ensure that the electrical signal is not reflected back to its source. This is illustrated at point `(3)` in the figure, where the electrical signal has reached the left endpoint and host B. At this point, B starts to receive the frame being transmitted by A. Notice that there is a delay between the transmission of a bit on host A and its reception by host B. If there were other hosts attached to the cable, they would receive the first bit of the frame at slightly different times. As we will see later, this timing difference is a key problem for MAC algorithms. At point `(4)`, the electrical signal has reached both ends of the cable and occupies it completely. Host A continues to transmit the electrical signal until the end of the frame. As shown at point `(5)`, when the sending host stops its transmission, the electrical signal corresponding to the end of the frame leaves the coaxial cable. The channel becomes empty again once the entire electrical signal has been removed from the cable.
CSMA improves channel utilization compared to ALOHA. However, the performance can still be improved, especially in wired networks. Consider the situation of two terminals that are connected to the same cable. This cable could, for example, be a coaxial cable as in the early days of Ethernet [Metcalfe1976]_. It could also be built with twisted pairs. Before extending CSMA, it is useful to understand, more intuitively, how frames are transmitted in such a network and how collisions can occur. The figure below illustrates the physical transmission of a frame on such a cable. To transmit its frame, host A must send an electrical signal on the shared medium. The first step is thus to begin the transmission of the electrical signal. This is point `(1)` in the figure below. This electrical signal will travel along the cable. Although electrical signals travel fast, we know that information cannot travel faster than the speed of light (i.e. 300.000 kilometers/second). On a coaxial cable, an electrical signal is slightly slower than the speed of light and 200.000 kilometers per second is a reasonable estimation. This implies that if the cable has a length of one kilometer, the electrical signal will need 5 microseconds to travel from one end of the cable to the other. The ends of coaxial cables are equipped with termination points that ensure that the electrical signal is not reflected back to its source. This is illustrated at point `(3)` in the figure, where the electrical signal has reached the left endpoint and host B. At this point, B starts to receive the frame being transmitted by A. Notice that there is a delay between the transmission of a bit on host A and its reception by host B. If there were other hosts attached to the cable, they would receive the first bit of the frame at slightly different times. As we will see later, this timing difference is a key problem for MAC algorithms. At point `(4)`, the electrical signal has reached both ends of the cable and occupies it completely. Host A continues to transmit the electrical signal until the end of the frame. As shown at point `(5)`, when the sending host stops its transmission, the electrical signal corresponding to the end of the frame leaves the coaxial cable. The channel becomes empty again once the entire electrical signal has been removed from the cable.
3 years ago
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