82 strings / 2350 words

Translation Source string Target string
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
This is an unpolished draft of the third edition of this e-book. If you find any error or have suggestions to improve the text, please create an issue via https://github.com/CNP3/ebook/issues?milestone=3 or help us by providing pull requests to close the existing issues.
Ceci est une ébauche non révisée de la troisième édition de cet e-book. Si vous trouvez une quelconque erreur ou avez des suggestions pour améliorer ce texte, n'hésitez pas à envoyer une issue via https://github.com/CNP3/ebook/issues?milestone=3 ou aidez-nous en fournissant une pull request afin de clore les issues existantes.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
This is an unpolished draft of the third edition of this e-book. If you find any error or have suggestions to improve the text, please create an issue via https://github.com/CNP3/ebook/issues?milestone=3 or help us by providing pull requests to close the existing issues.
This is an unpolished draft of the third edition of this e-book. If you find any error or have suggestions to improve the text, please create an issue via https://github.com/CNP3/ebook/issues?milestone=3 or help us by providing pull requests to close the existing issues.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The reference models
Les modèles de référence
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The reference models
The reference models
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
Given the growing complexity of computer networks, during the 1970s network researchers proposed various reference models to facilitate the description of network protocols and services. Of these, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model [Zimmermann80]_ was probably the most influential. It served as the basis for the standardization work performed within the :term:`ISO` to develop global computer network standards. The reference model that we use in this book can be considered as a simplified version of the OSI reference model [#fiso-tcp]_.
Compte tenu de la complexité croissante des réseaux informatiques, les chercheurs en réseaux ont proposé, au cours des années 1970, divers modèles de référence pour faciliter la description des protocoles et des services de réseau. Parmi ceux-ci, le modèle OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) [Zimmermann80]_ a probablement été le plus influent. Il a servi de base au travail de normalisation effectué au sein de l':term:`ISO` pour développer des normes mondiales pour les réseaux informatiques. Le modèle de référence que nous utilisons dans cet ouvrage peut être considéré comme une version simplifiée du modèle de référence OSI [#fiso-tcp]_.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
Given the growing complexity of computer networks, during the 1970s network researchers proposed various reference models to facilitate the description of network protocols and services. Of these, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model [Zimmermann80]_ was probably the most influential. It served as the basis for the standardization work performed within the :term:`ISO` to develop global computer network standards. The reference model that we use in this book can be considered as a simplified version of the OSI reference model [#fiso-tcp]_.
Given the growing complexity of computer networks, during the 1970s network researchers proposed various reference models to facilitate the description of network protocols and services. Of these, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model [Zimmermann80]_ was probably the most influential. It served as the basis for the standardization work performed within the :term:`ISO` to develop global computer network standards. The reference model that we use in this book can be considered as a simplified version of the OSI reference model [#fiso-tcp]_.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The five layers reference model
Le modèle de référence à cinq couches
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The five layers reference model
The five layers reference model
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
Our reference model is divided into five layers, as shown in the figure below.
Notre modèle de référence est divisé en cinq couches, comme le montre la figure ci-dessous.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
Our reference model is divided into five layers, as shown in the figure below.
Our reference model is divided into five layers, as shown in the figure below.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The Physical layer
The Physical layer
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The Physical layer
La couche physique
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
Starting from the bottom, the first layer is the Physical layer. Two communicating devices are linked through a physical medium. This physical medium is used to transfer an electrical or optical signal between two directly connected devices.
Starting from the bottom, the first layer is the Physical layer. Two communicating devices are linked through a physical medium. This physical medium is used to transfer an electrical or optical signal between two directly connected devices.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
Starting from the bottom, the first layer is the Physical layer. Two communicating devices are linked through a physical medium. This physical medium is used to transfer an electrical or optical signal between two directly connected devices.
En commençant par le bas, la première couche est la couche physique. Deux appareils communicants sont reliés par un support physique. Ce support physique est utilisé pour transférer un signal électrique ou optique entre deux appareils directement connectés.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
An important point to note about the Physical layer is the service that it provides. This service is usually an unreliable service that allows the users of the Physical layer to exchange bits. The unit of information transfer in the Physical layer is the bit. The Physical layer service is unreliable because :
An important point to note about the Physical layer is the service that it provides. This service is usually an unreliable service that allows the users of the Physical layer to exchange bits. The unit of information transfer in the Physical layer is the bit. The Physical layer service is unreliable because :
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the Physical layer may change, e.g. due to electromagnetic interference, the value of a bit being transmitted
the Physical layer may change, e.g. due to electromagnetic interference, the value of a bit being transmitted
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
the Physical layer may change, e.g. due to electromagnetic interference, the value of a bit being transmitted
la couche physique peut modifier, par exemple en raison d'une interférence électromagnétique, la valeur d'un bit transmis
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the Physical layer may deliver `more` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
the Physical layer may deliver `more` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
the Physical layer may deliver `more` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
la couche physique peut délivrer `plus` de bits au récepteur que les bits envoyés par l'expéditeur
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the Physical layer may deliver `fewer` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
the Physical layer may deliver `fewer` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
the Physical layer may deliver `fewer` bits to the receiver than the bits sent by the sender
la couche physique peut fournir au récepteur moins de bits que ceux envoyés par l'expéditeur
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The Datalink layer
The Datalink layer
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The Datalink layer
La couche Datalink
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The `Datalink layer` builds on the service provided by the underlying physical layer. The `Datalink layer` allows two hosts that are directly connected through the physical layer to exchange information. The unit of information exchanged between two entities in the `Datalink layer` is a frame. A frame is a finite sequence of bits. Some `Datalink layers` use variable-length frames while others only use fixed-length frames. Some `Datalink layers` provide a connection-oriented service while others provide a connectionless service. Some `Datalink layers` provide reliable delivery while others do not guarantee the correct delivery of the information.
The `Datalink layer` builds on the service provided by the underlying physical layer. The `Datalink layer` allows two hosts that are directly connected through the physical layer to exchange information. The unit of information exchanged between two entities in the `Datalink layer` is a frame. A frame is a finite sequence of bits. Some `Datalink layers` use variable-length frames while others only use fixed-length frames. Some `Datalink layers` provide a connection-oriented service while others provide a connectionless service. Some `Datalink layers` provide reliable delivery while others do not guarantee the correct delivery of the information.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The `Datalink layer` builds on the service provided by the underlying physical layer. The `Datalink layer` allows two hosts that are directly connected through the physical layer to exchange information. The unit of information exchanged between two entities in the `Datalink layer` is a frame. A frame is a finite sequence of bits. Some `Datalink layers` use variable-length frames while others only use fixed-length frames. Some `Datalink layers` provide a connection-oriented service while others provide a connectionless service. Some `Datalink layers` provide reliable delivery while others do not guarantee the correct delivery of the information.
La couche `Datalink` s'appuie sur le service fourni par la couche physique sous-jacente. La couche `Datalink` permet à deux hôtes qui sont directement connectés par la couche physique d'échanger des informations. L'unité d'information échangée entre deux entités dans la couche `Datalink` est une trame. Une trame est une séquence finie de bits. Certaines couches `Datalink` utilisent des trames de longueur variable tandis que d'autres n'utilisent que des trames de longueur fixe. Certaines couches `Datalink` fournissent un service orienté connexion alors que d'autres fournissent un service sans connexion. Certaines couches `Datalink` fournissent une livraison fiable tandis que d'autres ne garantissent pas la livraison correcte de l'information.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
An important point to note about the `Datalink layer` is that although the figure below indicates that two entities of the `Datalink layer` exchange frames directly, in reality this is slightly different. When the `Datalink layer` entity on the left needs to transmit a frame, it issues as many `Data.request` primitives to the underlying `physical layer` as there are bits in the frame. The physical layer will then convert the sequence of bits in an electromagnetic or optical signal that will be sent over the physical medium. The `physical layer` on the right hand side of the figure will decode the received signal, recover the bits and issue the corresponding `Data.indication` primitives to its `Datalink layer` entity. If there are no transmission errors, this entity will receive the frame sent earlier.
An important point to note about the `Datalink layer` is that although the figure below indicates that two entities of the `Datalink layer` exchange frames directly, in reality this is slightly different. When the `Datalink layer` entity on the left needs to transmit a frame, it issues as many `Data.request` primitives to the underlying `physical layer` as there are bits in the frame. The physical layer will then convert the sequence of bits in an electromagnetic or optical signal that will be sent over the physical medium. The `physical layer` on the right hand side of the figure will decode the received signal, recover the bits and issue the corresponding `Data.indication` primitives to its `Datalink layer` entity. If there are no transmission errors, this entity will receive the frame sent earlier.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
An important point to note about the `Datalink layer` is that although the figure below indicates that two entities of the `Datalink layer` exchange frames directly, in reality this is slightly different. When the `Datalink layer` entity on the left needs to transmit a frame, it issues as many `Data.request` primitives to the underlying `physical layer` as there are bits in the frame. The physical layer will then convert the sequence of bits in an electromagnetic or optical signal that will be sent over the physical medium. The `physical layer` on the right hand side of the figure will decode the received signal, recover the bits and issue the corresponding `Data.indication` primitives to its `Datalink layer` entity. If there are no transmission errors, this entity will receive the frame sent earlier.
Un point important à noter à propos de la `Couche de Liaison` est que bien que la figure ci-dessous indique que deux entités de la `Couche de Liaison` échangent des trames directement, en réalité c'est légèrement différent. Lorsque l'entité de la `couche liaison` de gauche doit transmettre une trame, elle émet autant de primitives `Data.request` à la `couche physique` sous-jacente qu'il y a de bits dans la trame. La couche physique convertit alors la séquence de bits en un signal électromagnétique ou optique qui sera envoyé sur le support physique. La couche physique, à droite de la figure, décodera le signal reçu, récupérera les bits et émettra les primitives "Data.indication" correspondantes à son entité "couche de liaison". S'il n'y a pas d'erreur de transmission, cette entité recevra la trame envoyée précédemment.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The Network layer
The Network layer
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The Network layer
La couche réseau
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The `Datalink layer` allows directly connected hosts to exchange information, but it is often necessary to exchange information between hosts that are not attached to the same physical medium. This is the task of the `network layer`. The `network layer` is built above the `datalink layer`. Network layer entities exchange `packets`. A `packet` is a finite sequence of bytes that is transported by the datalink layer inside one or more frames. A packet usually contains information about its origin and its destination, and usually passes through several intermediate devices called routers on its way from its origin to its destination.
The `Datalink layer` allows directly connected hosts to exchange information, but it is often necessary to exchange information between hosts that are not attached to the same physical medium. This is the task of the `network layer`. The `network layer` is built above the `datalink layer`. Network layer entities exchange `packets`. A `packet` is a finite sequence of bytes that is transported by the datalink layer inside one or more frames. A packet usually contains information about its origin and its destination, and usually passes through several intermediate devices called routers on its way from its origin to its destination.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The `Datalink layer` allows directly connected hosts to exchange information, but it is often necessary to exchange information between hosts that are not attached to the same physical medium. This is the task of the `network layer`. The `network layer` is built above the `datalink layer`. Network layer entities exchange `packets`. A `packet` is a finite sequence of bytes that is transported by the datalink layer inside one or more frames. A packet usually contains information about its origin and its destination, and usually passes through several intermediate devices called routers on its way from its origin to its destination.
La couche `Datalink` permet aux hôtes directement connectés d'échanger des informations, mais il est souvent nécessaire d'échanger des informations entre des hôtes qui ne sont pas attachés au même support physique. C'est la tâche de la "couche réseau". La couche réseau est construite au-dessus de la couche liaison de données. Les entités de la couche réseau échangent des `packets`. Un `paquet` est une séquence finie d'octets qui est transportée par la couche liaison de données à l'intérieur d'une ou plusieurs trames. Un paquet contient généralement des informations sur son origine et sa destination, et passe généralement par plusieurs dispositifs intermédiaires appelés routeurs sur son chemin de son origine à sa destination.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The Transport layer
The Transport layer
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The network layer enables hosts to reach each others. However, different communication flows can take place between the same hosts. These communication flows might have different needs (some require reliable delivery, other not) and need to be distinguished. Ensuring an identification of a communication flow between two given hosts is the task of the `transport layer`. `Transport layer` entities exchange `segments`. A segment is a finite sequence of bytes that are transported inside one or more packets. A transport layer entity issues segments (or sometimes part of segments) as `Data.request` to the underlying network layer entity.
The network layer enables hosts to reach each others. However, different communication flows can take place between the same hosts. These communication flows might have different needs (some require reliable delivery, other not) and need to be distinguished. Ensuring an identification of a communication flow between two given hosts is the task of the `transport layer`. `Transport layer` entities exchange `segments`. A segment is a finite sequence of bytes that are transported inside one or more packets. A transport layer entity issues segments (or sometimes part of segments) as `Data.request` to the underlying network layer entity.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The Transport layer
La couche Transport
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
There are different types of transport layers. The most widely used transport layers on the Internet are :term:`TCP`, that provides a reliable connection-oriented bytestream transport service, and :term:`UDP`, that provides an unreliable connection-less transport service.
There are different types of transport layers. The most widely used transport layers on the Internet are :term:`TCP`, that provides a reliable connection-oriented bytestream transport service, and :term:`UDP`, that provides an unreliable connection-less transport service.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The Application layer
The Application layer
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The upper layer of our architecture is the `Application layer`. This layer includes all the mechanisms and data structures that are necessary for the applications. We will use Application Data Unit (ADU) or the generic Service Data Unit (SDU) term to indicate the data exchanged between two entities of the Application layer.
The upper layer of our architecture is the `Application layer`. This layer includes all the mechanisms and data structures that are necessary for the applications. We will use Application Data Unit (ADU) or the generic Service Data Unit (SDU) term to indicate the data exchanged between two entities of the Application layer.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
In the remaining chapters of this text, we will often refer to the information exchanged between entities located in different layers. To avoid any confusion, we will stick to the terminology defined earlier, i.e. :
In the remaining chapters of this text, we will often refer to the information exchanged between entities located in different layers. To avoid any confusion, we will stick to the terminology defined earlier, i.e. :
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The Application layer
La couche Application
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
physical layer entities exchange bits
physical layer entities exchange bits
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The upper layer of our architecture is the `Application layer`. This layer includes all the mechanisms and data structures that are necessary for the applications. We will use Application Data Unit (ADU) or the generic Service Data Unit (SDU) term to indicate the data exchanged between two entities of the Application layer.
La couche supérieure de notre architecture est la `couche application`. Cette couche comprend tous les mécanismes et les structures de données qui sont nécessaires aux applications. Nous utiliserons le terme Application Data Unit (ADU) ou le terme générique Service Data Unit (SDU) pour indiquer les données échangées entre deux entités de la couche Application.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
datalink layer entities exchange *frames*
datalink layer entities exchange *frames*
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
In the remaining chapters of this text, we will often refer to the information exchanged between entities located in different layers. To avoid any confusion, we will stick to the terminology defined earlier, i.e. :
Dans les autres chapitres de ce texte, nous ferons souvent référence aux informations échangées entre des entités situées dans des couches différentes. Pour éviter toute confusion, nous nous en tiendrons à la terminologie définie précédemment, c'est-à-dire :
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
network layer entities exchange *packets*
network layer entities exchange *packets*
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
physical layer entities exchange bits
les entités de la couche physique échange des bits
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
transport layer entities exchange *segments*
transport layer entities exchange *segments*
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
datalink layer entities exchange *frames*
les entités de la couche liaison de données échangent des *frames*
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
application layer entities exchange *SDUs*
application layer entities exchange *SDUs*
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
network layer entities exchange *packets*
les entités de la couche réseau échangent des *packets*
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
Reference models
Reference models
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
transport layer entities exchange *segments*
les entités de la couche transport échangent des *segments
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
Two reference models have been successful in the networking community : the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model. We discuss them briefly in this section.
Two reference models have been successful in the networking community : the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model. We discuss them briefly in this section.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
application layer entities exchange *SDUs*
les entités de la couche application échangent des *SDUs*
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The TCP/IP reference model
The TCP/IP reference model
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
Reference models
Modèles de référence
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
In contrast with OSI, the TCP/IP community did not spend a lot of effort defining a detailed reference model; in fact, the goals of the Internet architecture were only documented after TCP/IP had been deployed [Clark88]_. :rfc:`1122`, which defines the requirements for Internet hosts, mentions four different layers. Starting from the top, these are :
In contrast with OSI, the TCP/IP community did not spend a lot of effort defining a detailed reference model; in fact, the goals of the Internet architecture were only documented after TCP/IP had been deployed [Clark88]_. :rfc:`1122`, which defines the requirements for Internet hosts, mentions four different layers. Starting from the top, these are :
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
Two reference models have been successful in the networking community : the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model. We discuss them briefly in this section.
Deux modèles de référence ont eu du succès dans la communauté des réseaux : le modèle de référence OSI et le modèle de référence TCP/IP. Nous les abordons brièvement dans cette section.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the Application layer
the Application layer
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The TCP/IP reference model
Le modèle de référence TCP/IP
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the Transport layer
the Transport layer
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the Internet layer which is equivalent to the network layer of our reference model
the Internet layer which is equivalent to the network layer of our reference model
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
the Application layer
la couche Application
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the Link layer which combines the functions of the physical and datalink layers of our five-layer reference model
the Link layer which combines the functions of the physical and datalink layers of our five-layer reference model
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
the Transport layer
la couche Transport
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
Besides this difference in the lower layers, the TCP/IP reference model is very close to the five layers that we use throughout this document.
Besides this difference in the lower layers, the TCP/IP reference model is very close to the five layers that we use throughout this document.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
the Internet layer which is equivalent to the network layer of our reference model
la couche Internet qui est équivalente à la couche réseau de notre modèle de référence
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
The OSI reference model
The OSI reference model
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
the Link layer which combines the functions of the physical and datalink layers of our five-layer reference model
la couche Liaison qui combine les fonctions des couches physique et liaison de données de notre modèle de référence à cinq couches
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
Compared to the five layers reference model explained above, the :term:`OSI` reference model defined in [X200]_ is divided in seven layers. The four lower layers are similar to the four lower layers described above. The OSI reference model refined the application layer by dividing it in three layers :
Compared to the five layers reference model explained above, the :term:`OSI` reference model defined in [X200]_ is divided in seven layers. The four lower layers are similar to the four lower layers described above. The OSI reference model refined the application layer by dividing it in three layers :
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
Besides this difference in the lower layers, the TCP/IP reference model is very close to the five layers that we use throughout this document.
Outre cette différence dans les couches inférieures, le modèle de référence de TCP/IP est très proche des cinq couches que nous utilisons dans ce document.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the `Session layer`. The Session layer contains the protocols and mechanisms that are necessary to organize and to synchronize the dialogue and to manage the data exchange of presentation layer entities. While one of the main functions of the transport layer is to cope with the unreliability of the network layer, the session's layer objective is to hide the possible failures of transport-level connections to the upper layer higher. For this, the Session Layer provides services that allow establishing a session-connection, to support in-order data exchange (including mechanisms that allow recovering from the abrupt release of an underlying transport connection), and to release the connection in an orderly manner.
the `Session layer`. The Session layer contains the protocols and mechanisms that are necessary to organize and to synchronize the dialogue and to manage the data exchange of presentation layer entities. While one of the main functions of the transport layer is to cope with the unreliability of the network layer, the session's layer objective is to hide the possible failures of transport-level connections to the upper layer higher. For this, the Session Layer provides services that allow establishing a session-connection, to support in-order data exchange (including mechanisms that allow recovering from the abrupt release of an underlying transport connection), and to release the connection in an orderly manner.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
The OSI reference model
Le modèle de référence OSI
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the `Presentation layer` was designed to cope with the different ways of representing information on computers. There are many differences in the way computer store information. Some computers store integers as 32 bits field, others use 64 bits field and the same problem arises with floating point number. For textual information, this is even more complex with the many different character codes that have been used [#funicode]_. The situation is even more complex when considering the exchange of structured information such as database records. To solve this problem, the Presentation layer provides a common representation of the data transferred. The :term:`ASN.1` notation was designed for the Presentation layer and is still used today by some protocols.
the `Presentation layer` was designed to cope with the different ways of representing information on computers. There are many differences in the way computer store information. Some computers store integers as 32 bits field, others use 64 bits field and the same problem arises with floating point number. For textual information, this is even more complex with the many different character codes that have been used [#funicode]_. The situation is even more complex when considering the exchange of structured information such as database records. To solve this problem, the Presentation layer provides a common representation of the data transferred. The :term:`ASN.1` notation was designed for the Presentation layer and is still used today by some protocols.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
Compared to the five layers reference model explained above, the :term:`OSI` reference model defined in [X200]_ is divided in seven layers. The four lower layers are similar to the four lower layers described above. The OSI reference model refined the application layer by dividing it in three layers :
Par rapport au modèle de référence à cinq couches expliqué ci-dessus, le modèle de référence :term:`OSI` défini dans [X200]_ est divisé en sept couches. Les quatre couches inférieures sont similaires aux quatre couches inférieures décrites ci-dessus. Le modèle de référence OSI a affiné la couche application en la divisant en trois couches :
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
the `Application layer` that contains the mechanisms that do not fit in neither the Presentation nor the Session layer. The OSI Application layer was itself further divided in several generic service elements.
the `Application layer` that contains the mechanisms that do not fit in neither the Presentation nor the Session layer. The OSI Application layer was itself further divided in several generic service elements.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
Footnotes
Footnotes
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
An interesting historical discussion of the OSI-TCP/IP debate may be found in [Russel06]_
An interesting historical discussion of the OSI-TCP/IP debate may be found in [Russel06]_
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
the `Application layer` that contains the mechanisms that do not fit in neither the Presentation nor the Session layer. The OSI Application layer was itself further divided in several generic service elements.
la couche "Application", qui contient les mécanismes qui n'entrent ni dans la couche Présentation ni dans la couche Session. La couche Application de l'OSI a elle-même été divisée en plusieurs éléments de service génériques.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — English
There is now a rough consensus for the greater use of the Unicode_ character format. Unicode can represent more than 100,000 different characters from the known written languages on Earth. Maybe one day, all computers will only use Unicode to represent all their stored characters and Unicode could become the standard format to exchange characters, but we are not yet at this stage today.
There is now a rough consensus for the greater use of the Unicode_ character format. Unicode can represent more than 100,000 different characters from the known written languages on Earth. Maybe one day, all computers will only use Unicode to represent all their stored characters and Unicode could become the standard format to exchange characters, but we are not yet at this stage today.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
Footnotes
Notes de pied de page
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
There is now a rough consensus for the greater use of the Unicode_ character format. Unicode can represent more than 100,000 different characters from the known written languages on Earth. Maybe one day, all computers will only use Unicode to represent all their stored characters and Unicode could become the standard format to exchange characters, but we are not yet at this stage today.
Il existe aujourd'hui un large consensus pour une plus grande utilisation du format de caractères Unicode_. Unicode peut représenter plus de 100 000 caractères différents issus des langues écrites connues sur Terre. Peut-être qu'un jour, tous les ordinateurs n'utiliseront que l'Unicode pour représenter tous leurs caractères stockés et l'Unicode pourrait devenir le format standard pour échanger des caractères, mais nous n'en sommes pas encore là aujourd'hui.
cnp3-ebook/principles/referencemodels — French
An interesting historical discussion of the OSI-TCP/IP debate may be found in [Russel06]_
Une discussion historique intéressante sur le débat OSI-TCP/IP peut être trouvée dans [Russel06]_