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[Abramson1970]_ analyzed the performance of ALOHANet under particular assumptions and found that ALOHANet worked well when the channel was lightly loaded. In this case, the frames are rarely retransmitted and the `channel traffic`, i.e. the total number of (correct and retransmitted) frames transmitted per unit of time is close to the `channel utilization`, i.e. the number of correctly transmitted frames per unit of time. Unfortunately, the analysis also reveals that the `channel utilization` reaches its maximum at :math:`\frac{1}{2 \times e}=0.186` times the channel bandwidth. At higher utilization, ALOHANet becomes unstable and the network collapses due to collided retransmissions.
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`Deterministic` or `pessimistic` MAC algorithms. These algorithms assume that collisions are a very severe problem and that they must be completely avoided. These algorithms ensure that at any time, at most one device is allowed to send a frame on the LAN. This is usually achieved by using a distributed protocol which elects one device that is allowed to transmit at each time. A deterministic MAC algorithm ensures that no collision will happen, but there is some overhead in regulating the transmission of all the devices attached to the LAN.
`Stochastic` or `optimistic` MAC algorithms. These algorithms assume that collisions are part of the normal operation of a Local Area Network. They aim to minimize the number of collisions, but they do not try to avoid all collisions. Stochastic algorithms are usually easier to implement than deterministic ones.
We first discuss a simple deterministic MAC algorithm and then we describe several important optimistic algorithms, before coming back to a distributed and deterministic MAC algorithm.
Static allocation methods
A first solution to share the available resources among all the devices attached to one Local Area Network is to define, `a priori`, the distribution of the transmission resources among the different devices. If `N` devices need to share the transmission capacities of a LAN operating at `b` Mbps, each device could be allocated a bandwidth of :math:`\frac{b}{N}` Mbps.
Limited resources need to be shared in other environments than Local Area Networks. Since the first radio transmissions by `Marconi <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi>`_ more than one century ago, many applications that exchange information through radio signals have been developed. Each radio signal is an electromagnetic wave whose power is centered around a given frequency. The radio spectrum corresponds to frequencies ranging between roughly 3 KHz and 300 GHz. Frequency allocation plans negotiated among governments reserve most frequency ranges for specific applications such as broadcast radio, broadcast television, mobile communications, aeronautical radio navigation, amateur radio, satellite, etc. Each frequency range is then subdivided into channels and each channel can be reserved for a given application, e.g. a radio broadcaster in a given region.
`Frequency Division Multiplexing` (FDM) is a static allocation scheme in which a frequency is allocated to each device attached to the shared medium. As each device uses a different transmission frequency, collisions cannot occur. In optical networks, a variant of FDM called `Wavelength Division Multiplexing` (WDM) can be used. An optical fiber can transport light at different wavelengths without interference. With WDM, a different wavelength is allocated to each of the devices that share the same optical fiber.
`Time Division Multiplexing` (TDM) is a static bandwidth allocation method that was initially defined for the telephone network. In the fixed telephone network, a voice conversation is usually transmitted as a 64 Kbps signal. Thus, a telephone conservation generates 8 KBytes per second or one byte every 125 microseconds. Telephone conversations often need to be multiplexed together on a single line. For example, in Europe, thirty 64 Kbps voice signals are multiplexed over a single 2 Mbps (E1) line. This is done by using `Time Division Multiplexing` (TDM). TDM divides the transmission opportunities into slots. In the telephone network, a slot corresponds to 125 microseconds. A position inside each slot is reserved for each voice signal. The figure below illustrates TDM on a link that is used to carry four voice conversations. The vertical lines represent the slot boundaries and the letters the different voice conversations. One byte from each voice conversation is sent during each 125 microseconds slot. The byte corresponding to a given conversation is always sent at the same position in each slot.
TDM as shown above can be completely static, i.e. the same conversations always share the link, or dynamic. In the latter case, the two endpoints of the link must exchange messages specifying which conversation uses which byte inside each slot. Thanks to these control messages, it is possible to dynamically add and remove voice conversations from a given link.
ALOHA
[Abramson1970]_ analyzed the performance of ALOHANet under particular assumptions and found that ALOHANet worked well when the channel was lightly loaded. In this case, the frames are rarely retransmitted and the `channel traffic`, i.e. the total number of (correct and retransmitted) frames transmitted per unit of time is close to the `channel utilization`, i.e. the number of correctly transmitted frames per unit of time. Unfortunately, the analysis also reveals that the `channel utilization` reaches its maximum at :math:`\frac{1}{2 \times e}=0.186` times the channel bandwidth. At higher utilization, ALOHANet becomes unstable and the network collapses due to collided retransmissions.
Amateur packet radio
Packet radio technologies have evolved in various directions since the first experiments performed at the University of Hawaii. The Amateur packet radio service developed by amateur radio operators is one of the descendants ALOHANet. Many amateur radio operators are very interested in new technologies and they often spend countless hours developing new antennas or transceivers. When the first personal computers appeared, several amateur radio operators designed radio modems and their own datalink layer protocols [KPD1985]_ [BNT1997]_. This network grew and it was possible to connect to servers in several European countries by only using packet radio relays. Some amateur radio operators also developed TCP/IP protocol stacks that were used over the packet radio service. Some parts of the `amateur packet radio network <http://www.ampr.org/>`_ are connected to the global Internet and use the `44.0.0.0/8` IPv4 prefix.
Many improvements to ALOHANet have been proposed since the publication of [Abramson1970]_, and this technique, or some of its variants, are still found in wireless networks today. The slotted technique proposed in [Roberts1975]_ is important because it shows that a simple modification can significantly improve channel utilization. Instead of allowing all terminals to transmit at any time, [Roberts1975]_ proposed to divide time into slots and allow terminals to transmit only at the beginning of each slot. Each slot corresponds to the time required to transmit one fixed size frame. In practice, these slots can be imposed by a single clock that is received by all terminals. In ALOHANet, it could have been located on the central mainframe. The analysis in [Roberts1975]_ reveals that this simple modification improves the channel utilization by a factor of two.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
ALOHA and slotted ALOHA can easily be implemented, but unfortunately, they can only be used in networks that are very lightly loaded. Designing a network for a very low utilization is possible, but it clearly increases the cost of the network. To overcome the problems of ALOHA, many Medium Access Control mechanisms have been proposed which improve channel utilization. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a significant improvement compared to ALOHA. CSMA requires all nodes to listen to the transmission channel to verify that it is free before transmitting a frame [KT1975]_. When a node senses the channel to be busy, it defers its transmission until the channel becomes free again. The pseudo-code below provides a more detailed description of the operation of CSMA.
The above pseudo-code is often called `persistent CSMA` [KT1975]_ as the terminal will continuously listen to the channel and transmit its frame as soon as the channel becomes free. Another important variant of CSMA is the `non-persistent CSMA` [KT1975]_. The main difference between persistent and non-persistent CSMA described in the pseudo-code below is that a non-persistent CSMA node does not continuously listen to the channel to determine when it becomes free. When a non-persistent CSMA terminal senses the transmission channel to be busy, it waits for a random time before sensing the channel again. This improves channel utilization compared to persistent CSMA. With persistent CSMA, when two terminals sense the channel to be busy, they will both transmit (and thus cause a collision) as soon as the channel becomes free. With non-persistent CSMA, this synchronization does not occur, as the terminals wait a random time after having sensed the transmission channel. However, the higher channel utilization achieved by non-persistent CSMA comes at the expense of a slightly higher waiting time in the terminals when the network is lightly loaded.
[KT1975]_ analyzes in detail the performance of several CSMA variants. Under some assumptions about the transmission channel and the traffic, the analysis compares ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, persistent and non-persistent CSMA. Under these assumptions, ALOHA achieves a channel utilization of only 18.4% of the channel capacity. Slotted ALOHA is able to use 36.6% of this capacity. Persistent CSMA improves the utilization by reaching 52.9% of the capacity while non-persistent CSMA achieves 81.5% of the channel capacity.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
Frame transmission on a shared bus
Now that we have looked at how a frame is actually transmitted as an electrical signal on a shared bus, it is interesting to look in more detail at what happens when two hosts transmit a frame at almost the same time. This is illustrated in the figure below, where hosts A and B start their transmission at the same time (point `(1)`). At this time, if host C senses the channel, it will consider it to be free. This will not last a long time and at point `(2)` the electrical signals from both host A and host B reach host C. The combined electrical signal (shown graphically as the superposition of the two curves in the figure) cannot be decoded by host C. Host C detects a collision, as it receives a signal that it cannot decode. Since host C cannot decode the frames, it cannot determine which hosts are sending the colliding frames. Note that host A (and host B) will detect the collision after host C (point `(3)` in the figure below).
Frame collision on a shared bus
As shown above, hosts detect collisions when they receive an electrical signal that they cannot decode. In a wired network, a host is able to detect such a collision both while it is listening (e.g. like host C in the figure above) and also while it is sending its own frame. When a host transmits a frame, it can compare the electrical signal that it transmits with the electrical signal that it senses on the wire. At points `(1)` and `(2)` in the figure above, host A senses only its own signal. At point `(3)`, it senses an electrical signal that differs from its own signal and can thus detects the collision. At this point, its frame is corrupted and it can stop its transmission. The ability to detect collisions while transmitting is the starting point for the `Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)` Medium Access Control algorithm, which is used in Ethernet networks [Metcalfe1976]_ [IEEE802.3]_ . When an Ethernet host detects a collision while it is transmitting, it immediately stops its transmission. Compared with pure CSMA, CSMA/CD is an important improvement since when collisions occur, they only last until colliding hosts have detected it and stopped their transmission. In practice, when a host detects a collision, it sends a special jamming signal on the cable to ensure that all hosts have detected the collision.
To better understand these collisions, it is useful to analyze what would be the worst collision on a shared bus network. Let us consider a wire with two hosts attached at both ends, as shown in the figure below. Host A starts to transmit its frame and its electrical signal is propagated on the cable. Its propagation time depends on the physical length of the cable and the speed of the electrical signal. Let us use :math:`\tau` to represent this propagation delay in seconds. Slightly less than :math:`\tau` seconds after the beginning of the transmission of A's frame, B decides to start transmitting its own frame. After :math:`\epsilon` seconds, B senses A's frame, detects the collision and stops transmitting. The beginning of B's frame travels on the cable until it reaches host A. Host A can thus detect the collision at time :math:`\tau-\epsilon+\tau \approx 2\times\tau`. An important point to note is that a collision can only occur during the first :math:`2\times\tau` seconds of its transmission. If a collision did not occur during this period, it cannot occur afterwards since the transmission channel is busy after :math:`\tau` seconds and CSMA/CD hosts sense the transmission channel before transmitting their frame.
The worst collision on a shared bus

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Source string location
../../principles/sharing.rst:338
String age
5 years ago
Source string age
5 years ago
Translation file
locale/fr/LC_MESSAGES/principles/sharing.po, string 80