2. cnp3-ebook
3. principles/naming
4. English
5. Zen

7 ../../principles/naming.rst:23
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A :term:`hosts.txt` file can be used when there are up to a few hundred hosts on the network. However, it is clearly not suitable for a network containing thousands or millions of hosts. A key issue in a large network is to define a suitable naming scheme. The ARPANet initially used a flat naming space, i.e. each host was assigned a unique name. To limit collisions between names, these names usually contained the name of the institution and a suffix to identify the host inside the institution (a kind of poor man's hierarchical naming scheme). On the ARPANet few institutions had several hosts connected to the network. 624/10000 · 624
8 ../../principles/naming.rst:25
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — However, the limitations of a flat naming scheme became clear before the end of the ARPANet and :rfc:`819` proposed a hierarchical naming scheme. While :rfc:`819` discussed the possibility of organizing the names as a directed graph, the Internet opted for a tree structure capable of containing all names. In this tree, the top-level domains are those that are directly attached to the root. The first top-level domain was `.arpa` [#fdnstimeline]_. This top-level name was initially added as a suffix to the names of the hosts attached to the ARPANet and listed in the `hosts.txt` file. In 1984, the `.gov`, `.edu`, `.com`, `.mil` and `.org` generic top-level domain names were added. :rfc:`1032` proposed the utilization of the two letter :term:`ISO-3166` country codes as top-level domain names. Since :term:`ISO-3166` defines a two letter code for each country recognized by the United Nations, this allowed all countries to automatically have a top-level domain. These domains include `.be` for Belgium, `.fr` for France, `.us` for the USA, `.ie` for Ireland or `.tv` for Tuvalu, a group of small islands in the Pacific or `.tm` for Turkmenistan. The set of top-level domain-names is managed by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (:term:`ICANN`). :term:`ICANN` adds generic top-level domains that are not related to a country and the `.cat` top-level domain has been registered for the Catalan language. There are ongoing discussions within :term:`ICANN` to increase the number of top-level domains. 1525/10000 · 1525
9 ../../principles/naming.rst:27
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Each top-level domain is managed by an organization that decides how sub-domain names can be registered. Most top-level domain names use a first-come first served system, and allow anyone to register domain names, but there are some exceptions. For example, `.gov` is reserved for the US government, `.int` is reserved for international organizations and names in the `.ca` are mainly `reserved <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ca>`_ for companies or users that are present in Canada. 482/10000 · 482
10 ../../principles/naming.rst:56
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The syntax of the domain names has been defined more precisely in :rfc:`1035`. This document recommends the following :term:`BNF` for fully qualified domain names (the domain names themselves have a much richer syntax). 219/10000 · 219
11 ../../principles/naming.rst:61
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — BNF of the fully qualified host names 37/10000 · 37
12 ../../principles/naming.rst:75
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — This grammar specifies that a host name is an ordered list of labels separated by the dot (`.`) character. Each label can contain letters, numbers and the hyphen character (`-`) [#fidn]_. Fully qualified domain names are read from left to right. The first label is a hostname or a domain name followed by the hierarchy of domains and ending with the root implicitly at the right. The top-level domain name must be one of the registered TLDs [#ftld]_. For example, in the above figure, `www.computer-networking.info` corresponds to a host named `www` inside the `computer-networking` domain that belongs to the `info` top-level domain. 634/10000 · 634
13 ../../principles/naming.rst:77
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Some visually similar characters have different character codes 63/10000 · 63
14 ../../principles/naming.rst:79
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The Domain Name System was created at a time when the Internet was mainly used in North America. The initial design assumed that all domain names would be composed of letters and digits :rfc:`1035`. As Internet usage grew in other parts of the world, it became important to support non-ASCII characters. For this, extensions have been proposed to the Domain Name System :rfc:`3490`. In a nutshell, the solution that is used to support Internationalized Domain Names works as follows. First, it is possible to use most of the Unicode characters to encode domain names and hostnames, with a few exceptions (for example, the dot character cannot be part of a name since it is used as a separator). Once a domain name has been encoded as a series of Unicode characters, it is then converted into a string that contains the ``xn--`` prefix and a sequence of ASCII characters. More details on these algorithms can be found in :rfc:`3490` and :rfc:`3492`. 948/10000 · 948
15 ../../principles/naming.rst:81
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — The possibility of using all Unicode characters to create domain names opened a new form of attack called the `homograph attack <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDN_homograph_attack>`_. This attack occurs when two character strings or domain names are visually similar but do not correspond to the same server. A simple example is https://G00GLE.COM and https://GOOGLE.COM. These two URLs are visually close but they correspond to different names (the first one does not point to a valid server [#fg00gle]_). With other Unicode characters, it is possible to construct domain names are visually equivalent to existing ones. See [Zhe2017]_ for additional details on this attack. 674/10000 · 674
16 ../../principles/naming.rst:84
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — This hierarchical naming scheme is a key component of the Domain Name System (DNS). The DNS is a distributed database that contains mappings between fully qualified domain names and addresses. The DNS uses the client-server model. The clients are hosts or applications that need to retrieve the mapping for a given name. Each :term:`nameserver` stores part of the distributed database and answers the queries sent by clients. There is at least one :term:`nameserver` that is responsible for each domain. In the figure below, domains are represented by circles and there are three hosts inside domain `dom` (`h1`, `h2` and `h3`) and three hosts inside domain `a.sdom1.dom`. As shown in the figure below, a sub-domain may contain both host names and sub-domains. 760/10000 · 760
17 ../../principles/naming.rst:109
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — A :term:`nameserver` that is responsible for domain `dom` can directly answer the following queries : 101/10000 · 101
18 ../../principles/naming.rst:111
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the address of any host residing directly inside domain `dom` (e.g. `h2.dom` in the figure above) 97/10000 · 97
19 ../../principles/naming.rst:112
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — the nameserver(s) that are responsible for any direct sub-domain of domain `dom` (i.e. `sdom1.dom` and `sdom2.dom` in the figure above, but not `z.sdom1.dom`) 158/10000 · 158
20 ../../principles/naming.rst:114
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — To retrieve the mapping for host `h2.dom`, a client sends its query to the name server that is responsible for domain `.dom`. The name server directly answers the query. To retrieve a mapping for `h3.a.sdom1.dom` a DNS client first sends a query to the name server that is responsible for the `.dom` domain. This nameserver returns the nameserver that is responsible for the `sdom1.dom` domain. This nameserver can now be contacted to obtain the nameserver that is responsible for the `a.sdom1.dom` domain. This nameserver can be contacted to retrieve the mapping for the `h3.a.sdom1.dom` name. Thanks to this structure, it is possible for a DNS client to obtain the mapping of any host inside the `.dom` domain or any of its subdomains. To ensure that any DNS client will be able to resolve any fully qualified domain name, there are special nameservers that are responsible for the root of the domain name hierarchy. These nameservers are called :term:`root nameserver`. 972/10000 · 972
21 ../../principles/naming.rst:116
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Each root nameserver maintains the list [#froot]_ of all the nameservers that are responsible for each of the top-level domain names and their addresses [#frootv6]_. All root nameservers cooperate and provide the same answers. By querying any of the root nameservers, a DNS client can obtain the nameserver that is responsible for any top-level-domain name. From this nameserver, it is possible to resolve any domain name. 422/10000 · 422
22 ../../principles/naming.rst:119
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — To be able to contact the root nameservers, each DNS client must know their addresses. This implies, that DNS clients must maintain an up-to-date list of the addresses of the root nameservers. Without this list, it is impossible to contact the root nameservers. Forcing all Internet hosts to maintain the most recent version of this list would be difficult from an operational point of view. To solve this problem, the designers of the DNS introduced a special type of DNS server : the DNS resolvers. A :term:`resolver` is a server that provides the name resolution service for a set of clients. A network usually contains a few resolvers. Each host in these networks is configured to send all its DNS queries via one of its local resolvers. These queries are called `recursive queries` as the :term:`resolver` must recursively send requests through the hierarchy of nameservers to obtain the `answer`. 902/10000 · 902
23 ../../principles/naming.rst:121
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — DNS resolvers have several advantages over letting each Internet host query directly nameservers. Firstly, regular Internet hosts do not need to maintain the up-to-date list of the addresses of the root servers. Secondly, regular Internet hosts do not need to send queries to nameservers all over the Internet. Furthermore, as a DNS resolver serves a large number of hosts, it can cache the received answers. This allows the resolver to quickly return answers for popular DNS queries and reduces the load on all DNS servers [JSBM2002]_. 536/10000 · 536
24 ../../principles/naming.rst:125
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — Benefits of names 17/10000 · 17
25 ../../principles/naming.rst:127
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — In addition to being more human friendly, using names instead of addresses inside applications has several important benefits. To understand them, let us consider a popular application that provides information stored on servers. This application involves clients and servers. The server provides information upon requests from client processes. A first deployment of this application would be to rely only on addresses. In this case, the server process would be installed on one host and the clients would connect to this server to retrieve information. Such a deployment has several drawbacks : 596/10000 · 596
26 ../../principles/naming.rst:129
	English ↹ ↵ NBS … “ ” ‘ ’ ﹙-﹚ ‐ – — if the server process moves to another physical server, all clients must be informed about the new server address 113/10000 · 113